- structural analysis: The process of determining the ability of a structure or any of its constituent members to safely carry a given set of loads without material distress or excessive deformation, given the arrangement, shape, and dimensions of the members, the types of connections and supports utilized, and the allowable stresses of the materials employed. For an existing structure, this procedure is known as structural rating.
- structural failure: Any condition, as fracturing, buckling, or plastic deformation, that renders a structural assembly, element, or joint incapable of sustaining the load-carrying function for which it was designed.
- award: A formal acceptance of a bid or a negotiated proposal.
- balloon framing: A structural system or framework evolved about 1830 using standardized lightweight lumber where 2-by-4 studs extended from foundation to roof. It replaced cumbersome heavy timber and braced framing and was made possible by the availability of inexpensive nails. After the Second World War it was generally replaced by the western or platform frame which was constructed one story at a time.
- tie-bar: The iron rod holding parts of a building together, mostly found in Gothic churches to resist the outward pressure of vaults. It is a feature of Florentine Renaissance buildings.
- extension bar: A removable fixture for a pair of compasses for use in describing large circles. A compass-pen or pencil being inserted in one end, the other is inserted in one leg of a pair of compasses, in place of the point.
- lengthening bar: A bar for lengthening a leg of a compass by the insertion of one end into the standing part, and the insertion of one of the detachable points at its other end.
- tension bar: A bar or rod to which a strain of tension is applied, or by which it is resisted.
- stereobata: Top of a foundation or sub-structure, forming a solid platform on which a Classical temple stands. It is therefore the top of a crepidoma, or the stylobate. 2. Walls of a Roman podium supporting a colonnade. 3. Pedestal.
- stereobate: From Greek, sterebates, “solid base.” The total substructure or base of a classical building; in a columnar building, the uppermost level is the stylobate.
- BOCA National Building Code: A building code developed and published by the Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc. (BOCA), and used primarily in the northeastern U.S.
- building code: Legal restrictions of a given locality governing the building of various types of structure.
- building permit: A written authorization to proceed with construction of a building project in accordance with approved drawings and specifications, issued by the local government agency having jurisdiction after plans have been filed and reviewed.
- certificate of occupancy: A document issued by a building official certifying that all or a designated portion of a building complies with the provisions of the building code, and permitting occupancy for its designated use.
- energy code: A building code that sets minimum standards for energy conservation and the energy-efficient design of buildings.
- Masterformat: A format developed by the Construction Specifications Institute for coordinating specifications, filing of technical data and product literature, and construction cost accounting, organized into 16 divisions based on an interrelationship of material, trade, or function.
- model code: A building code developed by an organization of states, professional societies, and trade associations for adoption by local communities.
- nonconforming: Of or pertaining to a material, type of construction, or occupancy or use not complying with the requirements set forth in a building code.
- Standard Building Code: A building code developed and published by the Southern Building Code Conference (SBCC), and used primarily in the southeastern U.S.
- Uniform Building Code: A building code developed and published by the International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), and used primarily in the central and western U.S.
- variance: An official permit to do something normally forbidden by regulations, especially by building in a way or for a purpose normally forbidden by a building code or zoning ordinance.
- zoning code: An ordinance regulating the division of land into zones, as to restrict the height, bulk, density, and use of buildings, and the provision of any ancillary facilities, as parking: a principal instrument in the implementation of a master plan.
- zoning ordinance: An ordinance regulating the division of land into zones, as to restrict the height, bulk, density, and use of buildings, and the provision of any ancillary facilities, as parking: a principal instrument in the implementation of a master plan. Also called zoning code.
- coefficient of heat transfer: The time rate of heat flow through a unit area of a building component or assembly when the difference between the air temperatures on the two sides of the component or assembly is one unit of temperature.
- piloti: Column on an unenclosed ground floor carrying a raised building above.
- deadman: Buried cross timbers, or a bulk of concrete, to which are attached guy pieces of wood, or wire cable, to anchor an upright post nearby, as a fence end or a gatepost.
- freestanding: Said of a structural element which is fixed by its foundation at its lower end, but not constrained throughout its vertical height.
- free-standing: Said of a structural element which is fixed by its foundation at its lower end, but not constrained throughout its vertical height.
- nageshi: In traditional Japanese architecture, a horizontal beam used to connect pillars. Later this term was used for a horizontal board secured to the inner and/or outer sides of columns.
- one-way: Of or pertaining to a structure or structural member having a load-carrying mechanism that acts in one direction only.
- rigid: Of or pertaining to a structure or structural member having a shape that does not change appreciably under the action of an applied load or changing loads.
- structural unit: A discrete structure or assembly of structural members forming a spatial volume.
- tension: Stress in a structural member caused by forces tending to draw it apart longitudinally, as in a tie rod. 2. A tenuous balance maintained in an artistic work between opposing forces or elements, often causing anxiety or excitement.
- tension member: A structural member subject primarily to tensile forces.
- termite shield: A sheet of metal serving as a barrier to termites between a foundation wall and the woodwork above.
- tree: Large piece of timber, e.g. beam, lintel, Rood-beam, bresummer…
- firmitas: In Latin, “firmness” or “stability,” one of the three essential components of architecture named by the ancient writer Vitruvius. The other components are Utilitas and Venustas.
- geminate: Also see geminated.
- geminated: Coupled, as in coupled columns.
- gymmer: Also see gemel.
- inter: The Latin preposition and adverb signifying between; used in English in many compound words, each of which expresses the relation of the spaces between members in a series to the members themselves.
- jimmer: Also see gemel.
- measure-up: Also see measuring-up.
- out to out: Same as over all.
- over all: Between the edges or boundaries; from the extreme limit at one side to the corresponding point at the other; especially between two imaginary parallel lines, or planes, so disposed as exactly to include all projections on two opposite faces or edges. Said of measurements and dimensions.
- stability: As applied to structures, the property of remaining in equilibrium without change of position, although the externally applied force ma deviate to a certain extent its mean amount or position…
- stagger: To arrange in parallel rows but with objects in one row opposite spaces in the next.
- taxis: In ancient classic architecture, the quality of having proper correlation between size and use.
- utilitas: In Latin, “utility” or “function,” one of the three essential components of architecture named by the ancient writer Vitruvius. The other components are Firmitas and Venustas.
- venustas: In Latin, “beauty,” one of the three essential components of architecture named by the ancient writer Vitruvius. The other components are Firmitas and Utilitas.
- aerodynamic damping: The shaping of a tall building to create turbulence which generates cross-wind lift to oppose cross-wind deflections during high winds.
- base isolation: Isolating the base of a building from the ground with damping mechanisms to allow the superstructure to float as a rigid body and alter the natural period of vibration of the structure so that it is different from that of the ground, thus preventing destructive resonances from occurring.
- damp: To cause a decrease in amplitude of successive oscillations or waves.
- damping mechanism: Any of various viscoelastic devices typically installed at structural joints to absorb the energy generated by wind or earthquake forces, progressively diminish or eliminate vibratory or oscillatory motions, and prevent destructive resonances from occurring.
- frictional damping: The damping that naturally occurs as a building undergoes elastic or plastic deformation, as from the internal friction of a stressed material (hysteresis damping), from the friction between two moving parts (frictional damping), or from the viscous resistance of a fluid such as air (viscous damping).
- hysteresis damping: The damping that naturally occurs as a building undergoes elastic or plastic deformation, as from the internal friction of a stressed material (hysteresis damping), from the friction between two moving parts (frictional damping), or from the viscous resistance of a fluid such as air (viscous damping).
- internal damping: The damping that naturally occurs as a building undergoes elastic or plastic deformation, as from the internal friction of a stressed material (hysteresis damping), from the friction between two moving parts (frictional damping), or from the viscous resistance of a fluid such as air (viscous damping).
- turned mass damper: A heavy mass mounted on rollers and attached to the upper portion of a tall building with spring damping mechanisms, having an inertial tendency to remain at rest and thus counteracting and dissipating any building movements.
- viscous damping: The damping that naturally occurs as a building undergoes elastic or plastic deformation, as from the internal friction of a stressed material (hysteresis damping), from the friction between two moving parts (frictional damping), or from the viscous resistance of a fluid such as air (viscous damping).
- airlock: An airtight chamber, under water or land as in caisson or tunnel excavation, serving to graduate the air pressure between adjacent atmospheres.
- batterboard: A horizontal board on stakes outside an excavation, used to support lines indicating foundation walls and levels.
- bell bucket: An attachment to an earth auger having expanding blades for excavating a bell at the bottom of a caisson shaft.
- bottom: The soil or other natural resisting material on which a building is founded, as at the bottom of an excavation or on which piles may bear.
- break ground: To start an excavation.
- bulkhead: A structure built to prevent earth from sliding into an excavation; hence, the outside cellar entrance with its sloping cover. 2. A structure carried above the floor or roof as a means of lighting, or to cover the head of an elevator shaft or the like. 3. A partition closing the end of a form or preventing the passage of newly placed concrete at a construction joint. 4. A boxlike structure on a roof providing access to a stairwell or an elevator shaft.
- cavasion: In architecture, an excavation for the foundation of a building or for cellarage. Also see cavtion, cavazion.
- cavtion: In architecture, an excavation for the foundation of a building or for cellarage. Also see cavazion.
- clamshell shovel: A powered excavating tool, the action of which is suggestive of its name.
- crib: A structure of logs, bars, or strips, intended to be left open without enclosure… 2. In house-moving the system of timbers placed under each runner or long timber on which the rollers are placed… 3. Any small and slight building walled and roofed wholly or in part with open framing, or with strips having open spaces between.
- cribbing: The temporary lining of an excavation, to serve as shoring. 2. Successive layers of logs or squared timbers, alternate layers at right angles, to hold an embankment.
- cribwork: A system of cribs for retaining earth or for a building being moved or having its foundation rebuilt.
- dry area: Gap excavated between a basement-wall of a building (lower than the floor-level) and the adjacent soil to prevent water-penetration and allow light and air to enter. 2. Space between a retaining-wall and the wall of a basement commencing at least as low as the foundations, drained and ventilated to prevent moisture seeping through into the building.
- guard: A protective railing or enclosure about moving parts of machinery, or about an excavation or materials near a building project.
- rock-cut building: Excavation in native rock without the aid of masonry, or with but little masonry…
- spoil: Unwanted material removed from an excavation.
- stall board: One of a series of boards or shelves upon which soil is pitched successively in excavating.
- subsurface investigation: The investigation and classification of a foundation soil based on observation and tests of material disclosed by borings or excavations to obtain the information necessary for the design of a foundation system, including the shearing strength, compressibility, cohesion, expansiveness, permeability, and moisture content of the soil, the elevation of the water table, and the anticipated total and differential settlement.
- false work: Temporary construction as an aid in building a structure meant to endure.
- plug and feather: A combination of three pieces, usually of iron, for splitting stone. It consists of two half-round bars which are placed in a hole drilled in the stone for the purpose, and between the flat sides of which is driven the third piece having a wedge shape. The last appears to be generally known as the plug, although feather would seem more appropriate from the general meaning of that term.
- cleavage: The natural tendency of certain materials, especially of stones and crystals, to fracture or split in certain definite directions determined by the molecular or physical structure of the material; also, the direction or manner in which such materials tend to divide. Thus, stones which have a stratified structure are commonly capable of being readily divided in the direction of the layers.
- component: In mechanics, one or two or more forces which make up the force with which the constructor is concerned; or into which that force may be considered as being divided…
- failure: Breaking point, as that of a material tested for compressive strength to failure.
- false bearing: In English usage, a bearing or point of support which is not vertically over the supporting structure below, as that which is afforded by a projecting corbel or cantilever.
- modulus of rupture: The stress at which a specimen of material breaks in the testing.
- resistance: The power of any substance, as building material, to resist forces, such as compression, cross breaking, shear, tension, and torsion.
- stasis: A state of equilibrium among opposing forces. In architecture, the opposing forces are tension and compression.
- tenacity: The power of resisting a pull, that is to say, strength against breaking by means of a pull…
- torsional strength: The strength of a member or material to resist a torsional force; i.e. a force tending to separate or break by twisting; an abbreviated and erroneous term.
- transverse strength: See strength of materials.
- working strength: See strength.
- gemel: Two corresponding elements of construction considered as a pair. 2. Ancient term for a hinge.
- gemmel: Same as gemel.
- gimmer: See gemel.
- concealed grid: A metal grid supporting the acoustical tiles of a suspended ceiling, hidden within kerfs cut into the edges of the tiles.
- double grid: A structural pattern consisting of two grids offset from each other and creating interstitial spaces between the bays.
- exposed grid: A metal grid of inverted tees supporting the acoustical tiles of a suspended ceiling.
- grid: A mat of crossed reinforcing bars for incorporation in a concrete footing; a grillage. 2. The plan, section, or elevation of the four inch module spacing over which a working drawing is made. 3. A steel structure above the stage of a theater, from which hung scenery and equipment are manipulated. Also called grid. 4. A rectangular system of lines and coordinates serving as a reference for locating and regulating the elements of a plan.
- irregular grid: A structural grid having irregularly shaped bays in one or more directions.
- recessed grid: A metal grid for supporting a suspended ceiling of acoustical tiles having rabbeted joints.
- regular grid: A structural grid having regularly repeating bays in two directions.
- skew grid: A grid structure of beams or flat trusses running obliquely to the sides of the base rectangle in order to equalize their spans and stiffnesses. The shorter spans at the corners result in additional stiffness.
- slipped grid: A structural grid having points or lines of supports spaced uniformly in one direction by varying in the other.
- spike grid: A flat or singly curved grid of spikes for joining heavy timbers, held in place by a single bolt. The resulting joint is resistant to loosening due to vibration, impact, and reversible lateral loads.
- structural grid: A grid defining the principal points or lines of support for a structural system.
- colmbage: Norman term for half-timber construction.
- air-inflated structure: A pneumatic structure supported by pressurized air within inflated building elements, which are shaped to carry loads in a traditional manner, while the enclosed volume of building air remains at normal atmospheric pressure. The tendency for a double-membrane structure to bulge in the middle is restrained by a compression ring or by internal ties or diaphragms.
- inflatable: The term refers to modern lightweight enclosures which are held up by air. There are two main types – those that are held up by inflated ribs and those where the internal air pressure is kept slightly above atmospheric air-pressure in order to support the structure itself. The latter requires an air-lock at entrances.
- pneumatic architecture: Inflatable structures such as balloons and airships have been known for many years, but not until 1917 was the first patent for pneumatic architecture taken out…
- Americans with Disabilities Act: An act of Congress that became law in 1992, establishing design standards and requirements for all buildings except single-family residences to ensure their accessibility by the physically disabled.
- indenture: A deed of mutual covenants.
- licensed: Legally certified by a governmental or other constituted authority to engage in a business or profession. Also, registered.
- registered: Legally certified by a governmental or other constituted authority to engage in a business or profession.
- restrictive covenant: A covenant with a clause that restricts the action of any party to it, as an agreement among property owners specifying the use to which a property can be put: racial and religious restrictions are legally unenforceable.
- right of way: See law.
- aerodynamic oscillation: The rapid oscillations of a flexible cable or membrane structure caused by the aerodynamic effects of wind.
- allowable load: A load inducing the allowable stresses at a critical section of a structural member.
- amplitude: The maximum displacement from the mean position during one period of an oscillation. 2. The maximum deviation of a wave or alternating current from its average value.
- base shear: The shearing force developed at the base of a structure by the tendency of its upper mass to remain at rest while the base is translated by ground motions during an earthquake. Base shear is the minimum design value for the total lateral seismic force on a structure, and is assumed to act nonconcurrently in the direction of each of the main axes of the structure. It is computed by multiplying the total dead load of the structure by a number of coefficients to reflect the character and intensity of the ground motions, the mass and stiffness of the structure and the way these are distributed, the type of soil underlying the foundation, and the pressure of damping mechanisms in the structure.
- base shear coefficient: A coefficient for adjusting base shear according to the relationship between the natural period of vibration of a structure and that of the underlying soil on which the structure rests. When these periods are similar, base shear is increased to reflect the likelihood of destructive resonances occurring in the structure.
- basic wind speed: The wind velocity used in calculating wind stagnation pressure, usually the extreme fastest-mile wind speed recorded for a geographic location at a standard height of 33 feet (10 m) and based on a 50-year mean occurrence interval. Also called design wind velocity.
- Bernoulli equation: An expression of the conservation of energy to streamline flow, stating that the sum of the ratio of pressure to mass density, the square of the velocity divided by 2, and the product of the gravitational constant and vertical height, remains constant. Also called Bernoulli’s theorem.
- Bernoulli’s theorem: An expression of the conservation of energy to streamline flow, stating that the sum of the ratio of pressure to mass density, the square of the velocity divided by 2, and the product of the gravitational constant and vertical height, remains constant.
- bracket load: An eccentric load applied at some point below the upper end of a timber column, the static effect of which is assumed to be equivalent to the same load applied axially plus an additional side load applied at midheight.
- building separation: The distance required to avoid contact between separated structures under deflection from seismic action or wind forces.
- building type factor: A coefficient for adjusting base shear according to construction type and material, and the energy-absorbing capacity of the structural and lateral force-resisting systems used. Base shear is inversely proportional to the energy-absorbing capacity of a structure; the greater the structure’s stiffness or ductility, the lower the base shear.
- center of resistance: The centroid of the vertical elements of a lateral force-resisting system, through which the shear reaction to lateral forces acts. Also called center of rigidity.
- center of rigidity: The centroid of the vertical elements of a lateral force-resisting system, through which the shear reaction to lateral forces acts.
- concentrated load: A load acting on a very small area or particular point of a supporting structural element.
- construction load: A temporary load on a structure occurring during its erection, as from wind or the weight of construction equipment and stored materials.
- contributory area: The portion of a structure contributing to the load on a structural element or member.
- cross bracing: A pair of transverse braces for stabilizing a structural frame against lateral forces. When using cables, two are necessary to stabilize the structure against lateral forces from either direction. For each direction, one cable will operate effectively in tension while the other would simply buckle. If rigid braces are used, a certain degree of redundancy is involved since a single member is capable of stabilizing the structure. Also, X-bracing.
- crushing load: Also see crushing load, crushing weight.
- damping: The absorption or dissipation of energy to progressively diminish successive oscillations or waves of a vibrating structure.
- dead load: A constant weight or pressure, used in computing strength of beams, or floors, or roof surfaces.
- design load: A load used in structural design computations.
- design wind pressure: The pressure exerted by a moving mass of air, derived from Bernoulli’s equation and equal to the product of the mass density of the air and the square of the velocity at a given height divided by 2.
- design wind velocity: The wind velocity used in calculating wind stagnation pressure, usually the extreme fastest-mile wind speed recorded for a geographic location at a standard height of 33 feet (10 m) and based on a 50-year mean occurrence interval.
- distributed load: A load extending over the length or area of the supporting structural element.
- distribution of base shear: The manner in which base shear is distributed over the height of a structure according to the displacements that would occur during an earthquake. For a building of regular rectangular shape with equal floor weights and heights and no irregularities in stiffness or mass, base shear is distributed to each horizontal diaphragm above the base in proportion to the floor weight at each level and its distance from the base. This results in a triangular load configuration varying from zero at the base to a maximum lovalue at the top. For structures having a natural period of vibration greater than 0.7 seconds, a portion of the total base shear is assumed to be concentrated at the top of the structure to account for the whiplash effect of seismic forces. For structures with irregular shapes or framing systems, the distribution of lateral forces should be determined according to the relative stiffnesses of adjacent floor levels and the dynamic characteristics of the structure.
- drift index: The maximum ratio of story drift to story height allowed by a building code in order to minimize damage to building components or adjacent structures. Also called drift limitation.
- drift limitation: The maximum ratio of story drift to story height allowed by a building code in order to minimize damage to building components or adjacent structures.
- duration of load factor: A coefficient for increasing the size-adjusted values of a wood member subject to a short-term load, since wood has the property of carrying substantially greater maximum loads for short durations than for long durations of loading.
- dynamic load: A load applied suddenly to a structure, often with rapid changes in magnitude and location. Under a dynamic load, a structure develops inertial forces in relation to its mass and its maximum deformation does not necessarily correspond to the maximum magnitude of the applied force.
- dynamic wind pressure: The pressure exerted by a moving mass of air, derived from Bernoulli’s equation and equal to the product of the mass density of the air and the square of the velocity at a given height divided by 2.
- earth pressure: The horizontal force a soil mass exerts on a vertical retaining structure.
- earthquake: A series of longitudinal and transverse vibrations induced in the earth’s crust by the abrupt movement of plates along fault lines. The shocks of an earthquake propagate along the earth’s surface in the form of waves and attenuate logarithmically with distance from its source.
- earthquake load: The forces exerted on a structure by an earthquake.
- eccentric bracing: A structural system for resisting lateral forces, combining the ductility of a moment-resisting frame with the rigidity of a braced frame.
- epicenter: A point directly above the hypocenter, from which the shock waves of an earthquake apparently emanate.
- equivalent load: A load substituted by a building code for an actual load, derived on the basis of statistical evidence for given types of buildings. For safety, the equivalent load is usually a multiple of the load that would produce failure or unacceptable deflection.
- erection bracing: The temporary bracing required to secure the units or components of a building until permanently fastened in place.
- erection stress: The stress induced on a building unit or component by loads applied during the erection process.
- exposure condition: One of four conditions modifying design wind pressure according to obstructions in the area surrounding a building site. Exposure A: urban areas with high-rise buildings, or rough, hilly terrain; Exposure B: suburban sites, wooded Ares or rolling terrain; Exposure C: flat, open terrain with minimal obstructions; Exposure D: flat, unobstructed terrain facing large bodies of water. The more open a site, the greater the wind speed and the resulting design wind pressure.
- factor of safety: The factor by which the expected weight or stress is multiplied to indicate the surplus of strength or resistance provided for safety’s sake.
- factored load: A design load equal to the service load multiplied by a factor of safety. Also called ultimate load.
- factored load design: A method for sizing and proportioning a structural member based on the assumption that a factored load will not stress the material beyond its ultimate strength.
- fastest-mile wind speed: The average speed of a one-mile-long column of air that passes over a given point, measured in miles per hour.
- fault: A discoloration of strata which may interfere with natural underground drainage. 2. A local failure in the insulation or continuity of a conductor or in the functioning of an electrical system. 3. A break in the earth’s crust accompanied by a dislocation in the plane of the fracture.
- flutter: The rapid oscillations of a flexible cable or membrane structure caused by the aerodynamic effects of wind. Also called aerodynamic oscillation. 2. A rapid succession of echoes caused by the reflection of sound waves back and forth between two parallel surfaces, with sufficient time between each reflection to cause the listener to be aware of separate, discrete signals.
- fundamental period of vibration: The time required for a body subject to a vibratory force to go through one oscillation in the direction under consideration. A structure’s natural period of vibration varies according to its height above the base and its diameter parallel to the direction of the applied forces. A relatively stiff structure tends to oscillate rapidly and has a short period of vibration while a more flexible structure tends to oscillate slowly and has a longer period.
- ground acceleration: The rate of change in the velocity of ground movement with respect to time. High accelerations are the most damaging to a structure, which must try to follow the rapid changes in ground movement during an earthquake.
- gust factor: A coefficient increasing design wind pressure to account for the dynamic effects of wind gusts.
- harmonic motion: Periodic motion consisting of one or more vibratory motions that are symmetric about a region of equilibrium, as the motion of a vibrating string of a musical instrument.
- height factor: A coefficient increasing design wind pressure to account for the increase in wind velocity with height above the ground.
- horizontal force factor: A coefficient used in calculating the lateral seismic force on structural elements, nonstructural components, or their connections, according to their weight and function.
- horizontal torsion: The torsion resulting from a lateral load acting on a structure having noncoincident centers of mass and resistance. To avoid destructive torsional effects, structures subject to lateral loads should be arranged and braced symmetrically with centers of mass and resistance as coincident as possible. In asymmetrical layouts, bracing elements should be distributed with stiffness that correspond to the distribution of the mass.
- hypocenter: The point of origin of an earthquake. Also called focus.
- impact factor: A factor by which the effect of a static load is multiplied to approximate the effect of applying the same load dynamically.
- impact load: A kinetic load of short duration due to moving vehicles, equipment, and machinery. Building codes treat this load as a static load, compensating for its dynamic nature by amplifying the static load.
- importance factor: A coefficient for increasing the design values for wind or seismic forces on a building because of its large occupancy, its potentially hazardous contents, or its essential nature in the wake of a hurricane or earthquake.
- isobar: A line connecting points of equal pressure.
- lateral load: A load acting horizontally on a structure as a wind or earthquake load.
- lateral stability: The ability of a structure to resist lateral forces without sliding, overturning, buckling, or collapsing.
- leeward: Pertaining to, being in, or facing the direction toward which the wind is blowing.
- linear structure: A structural member having a length that dominates its other two dimensions.
- liquefaction: The sudden loss of shearing resistance in a cohesionless soil, causing the soil mass to behave as a liquid.
- live load: The stress imposed on a structure by occupants, traffic, wind, and other shifting forces.
- load: Dead load, total downward pressure of all fixed elements of the structure; live load, downward pressure that might be added to the structure temporarily. 2. The power delivered by a generator or transformer, or the power consumed by an appliance or device. 3. The demand placed on a heating, ventilating, or air-conditioning system in order to maintain the desired conditions of thermal comfort in a building.
- load combination: The dead load and two or more live loads assumed to occur simultaneously on a structure when their combined effect can be reasonably expected to be less than the sum of their separate actions.
- load flow: The process of modeling how a structure collects, channels, and redirects the loads resulting from external forces through the hierarchy of its members to the foundation and underlying soil. The analysis usually starts at the roof level with the smallest members actually picking up the loading and proceeds by tracing the loads through each collecting member. The reactions of each member to its loading becomes forces on the members supporting it.
- load reduction: A reduction in design loading allowed by building codes for certain load combinations, based on the assumption that not all live loads will act simultaneously on a structure at their full value. After all possible load combinations are considered, a structure is designed to carry the most severe but realistic distribution, concentration, and combination of loads.
- load strip: The tributary area per unit length of a supporting structural member.
- load trace: The process of modeling how a structure collects, channels, and redirects the loads resulting from external forces through the hierarchy of its members to the foundation and underlying soil. The analysis usually starts at the roof level with the smallest members actually picking up the loading and proceeds by tracing the loads through each collecting member. The reactions of each member to its loading becomes forces on the members supporting it. Also called load flow.
- load-bearing: Usually refers to a wall which is supporting other elements in a building (roof, floors, etc.).
- load-factor design: A method for sizing and proportioning a structural member based on the assumption that a factored load will not stress the material beyond its ultimate strength.
- moment center: The point at which the axis of a moment intersects the plane of the forces causing the moment.
- moving load: A kinetic load of short duration due to moving vehicles, equipment, and machinery. Building codes treat this load as a static load, compensating for its dynamic nature by amplifying the static load. Also called impact load.
- natural period of vibration: The time required for a body subject to a vibratory force to go through one oscillation in the direction under consideration. A structure’s natural period of vibration varies according to its height above the base and its diameter parallel to the direction of the applied forces. A relatively stiff structure tends to oscillate rapidly and has a short period of vibration while a more flexible structure tends to oscillate slowly and has a longer period. Also called fundamental period of vibration.
- normal force method: A design method for applying design wind pressure to the primary frame and bracing systems of a building, in which wind pressures are assumed to act simultaneously normal to all exterior surfaces. This method may be used for any structure, but is required for gabled rigid frames. Tall, slender buildings, structures with unusual or complex shapes, and lightweight, flexible structures subject to flutter require wind tunnel testing or computer modeling to investigate how they respond to the distribution of wind pressure.
- occupancy load: The live load on a structure resulting from the weight of people, furniture, stored material, and other similar items in a building. Building codes specify minimum live loads for various uses and occupancies.
- occupant load: The total number of persons that may occupy a building or portion thereof at any one time, determined by dividing the floor area assigned to a particular use by the square feet per occupant permitted in that use. Building codes use occupant load to establish the required number and width of exits for a building.
- oscillate: To swing back and forth like a pendulum between alternating extremes.
- oscillation: A single swing of an oscillating body from one extreme limit to another.
- overturning moment: An external moment generated at the base of a structure by a lateral load applied at a distance above grade. For equilibrium, the overturning moment must be counterbalanced by an external restoring moment and an internal resisting moment provided by forces developed in column members and shear walls.
- panel load: A concentrated load applied to a panel point of a truss. To prevent secondary stresses from developing, the centroidal exes of truss members and the load at a joint should pass through a common point.
- period: The time required for one complete cycle of a wave or oscillation.
- periodic motion: Any motion that recurs in the same form at equal intervals of time.
- pressure coefficient: A coefficient modifying design wind pressure to reflect how the geometry and orientation of the various parts of a structure alter the effects of an impinging air flow. Inward or positive coefficients result in wind pressure while outward or negative coefficients result in wind suction.
- projected area method: A design method for applying design wind pressure to the primary frame and bracing systems of a building, in which the total wind effect is considered to be a combination of a single inward or positive horizontal pressure acting on the full vertical projected area of the building and an outward or negative pressure acting on the full horizontal projected area of the building. This method may be used for any structure less than 200 feet (61 m) high, except for gabled rigid frames.
- reentrant corner: The plan configuration of a structure and its lateral force-resisting system having projections beyond a corner significantly greater than the plan dimensions in the given direction. A reentrant corner tends to produce differential motions between different portions of the structure, resulting in local stress concentrations at the corner. Solutions include providing a seismic joint to separate the building into simpler shapes, tying the building together more strongly at the corner, or splaying the corner.
- restoring moment: A resisting moment provided by the dead load of a structure acting about the same point of rotation as the overturning movement. Building codes usually require that the restoring moment be at least 50% greater than the overturning moment. Also called righting moment, stabilizing moment.
- righting moment: A resisting moment provided by the dead load of a structure acting about the same point of rotation as the overturning movement. Building codes usually require that the restoring moment be at least 50% greater than the overturning moment.
- seismic: Of, pertaining to, or caused by an earthquake or vibration of the earth.
- seismic coefficient: A coefficient for adjusting base shear according to the relationship between the natural period of vibration of a structure and that of the underlying soil on which the structure rests. When these periods are similar, base shear is increased to reflect the likelihood of destructive resonances occurring in the structure. Also called base shear coefficient.
- seismic force: Any of the forces caused by the vibratory ground motions of an earthquake. While these motions are three-dimensional in nature, their horizontal components are considered to be the most important in structural design; the vertical load-carrying elements of a structure usually have considerable reserve for resisting additional vertical loads. During an earthquake, the mass of a structure develops an inertial force as it tries to resist ground acceleration. From Newton’s second law, this force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration. For design purposes, a statically equivalent lateral force, base shear, is computed by formula.
- seismic zone factor: A coefficient for adjusting base shear according to the probable seismic activity and intensity of a geographic location. There are 5 seismic zones in the U.S., with zone 0 being the least active and zone 4 being an area close to a major fault system.
- service load: The maximum load a structure may be reasonably required to support during its useful life. Building codes specify minimum service loads for various uses, occupancies, types of construction, and environmental conditions. Also called working load.
- settlement load: A load imposed on a structure by subsidence of a portion of the supporting soil and the resulting differential settlement of its foundation.
- settling: Same as settlement.
- sidesway: The lateral displacement produced in a rigid frame by lateral loads or asymmetrical vertical loading.
- sinking: Same as settlement. 2. A notch cut into a surface to receive a leaf of a hinge.
- site coefficient: A coefficient reflecting the nature and profile of the foundation soil, usually based on a geotechnical investigation. Ground movements are potentially much greater in alluvial soils than in rocky areas or diluvial soils.
- sliding: The horizontal movement of a structure in response to a lateral load.
- snow load: The live load resulting from the weight of snow accumulating on a roof. Snow loads vary with geographic location, site exposure, wind conditions, and roof geometry.
- stabilizing moment: A resisting moment provided by the dead load of a structure acting about the same point of rotation as the overturning movement. Building codes usually require that the restoring moment be at least 50% greater than the overturning moment.
- static load: A load applied slowly to a structure until it reaches its peak value without fluctuating rapidly in magnitude or position. Under a static load, a structure responds slowly and its deformation reaches a peak when the static force is maximum.
- static load test: A test for determining the allowable axial load on a single pile, usually a fraction of the load required to reach a yield point, a point of resistance, or a point of refusal.
- story drift: The horizontal movement of one level of a structure relative to the level above or below.
- story shear: The total shear in any horizontal plane of a structure subject to lateral loads, distributed according to the various lateral force-resisting elements in a proportion to their rigidities. Story shear is cumulative and increases from its minimum value at the top to its maximum at the base.
- structural rating: The process of determining the ability of a structure or any of its constituent members to safely carry a given set of loads without material distress or excessive deformation, given the arrangement, shape, and dimensions of the members, the types of connections and supports utilized, and the allowable stresses of the materials employed. For an existing structure, this procedure is known as structural rating.
- torsional irregularity: The asymmetrical layout of mass or lateral force-resisting elements, resulting in noncoincident centers of mass and resistance and causing the story drift at one end of the structure to be more than the average of the story drifts at both ends.
- tributary: Channeling into something more inclusive.
- tributary area: The portion of a structure contributing to the load on a structural element or member. Also called contributory area.
- tributary load: The load on a structural element or member collected from its tributary area.
- two-way: Of or pertaining to a structure or structural member having a load-carrying mechanism that acts in two or more directions.
- ultimate load: A design load equal to the service load multiplied by a factor of safety.
- ultimate strength design: A method for sizing and proportioning a structural member based on the assumption that a factored load will not stress the material beyond its ultimate strength. Also called factored load design, load-factor design.
- uniformly distributed load: A distributed load of uniform magnitude.
- uplift: The raising of a structure or portion of structure in response to an overturning moment or wind suction.
- water load: The live load of water that may accumulate on a roof because of its form, deflection, or the clogging of its drainage system.
- water pressure: The uplifting force a water table exerts on a foundation system.
- weight factor: The total dead load of a building, including the weight of furnishings, stored materials, permanent equipment, and heavy snow loads. Base shear is directly proportional to the mass of a building: the greater the mass, the greater the base shear.
- wind load: Any of the forces exerted by the kinetic energy of a moving mass of air, resulting in pressure on certain parts of a structure and suction on others.
- wind pressure: The pressure exerted by wind horizontally on the windward vertical surfaces of a building and normal to windward roof surfaces having a slope greater than 30 degrees.
- wind stagnation pressure: The static equivalent to dynamic wind pressure used as a reference in calculating design wind pressure, specified in pounds per square foot and equal to 0.00256 times the square of the basic wind speed for the geographic location. Wind velocity approaches zero as the moving air mass parts to flow around an obstruction. Since the sum of static and dynamic pressures remains constant in streamline flow, all of the energy in the flow at this point of stagnation is in the form of static pressure.
- wind suction: The negative pressure exerted by wind on the sides and leeward vertical surfaces of a building and normal to windward roof surfaces having a slope less than 30 degrees.
- wind-load: See wind pressure.
- windward: Pertaining to, being in, or facing the direction from which the wind blows.
- working load: The maximum load a structure may be reasonably required to support during its useful life. Building codes specify minimum service loads for various uses, occupancies, types of construction, and environmental conditions.
- center of mass: The point at which the entire mass of a body may be considered concentrated such that the moment about any line through the point is zero.
- irregular mass: A story having an effective mass significantly greater than that of an adjacent story.
- massing: The exterior sculptural composition of the volumes of a building. 2. A unified composition of two-dimensional shapes or three-dimensional volumes, especially one that has or gives the impression of weight, density, and bulk.
- principal: In a framed structure, a most important member, such as a truss which supports the roof.
- cable loop: A reinforcing edge cable tied to the mast support of a membrane structure.
- distribution cap: The broadened end of a mast over which a prestressed membrane structure is stressed.
- membrane: A thin, flexible surface that carries loads primarily through the development of tensile stresses.
- membrane structures: See tensile structures
- reinforcing edge cable: A cable stiffening the free edges of a prestressed membrane structure.
- cantilever method: A method for analyzing a multistory frame as a cantilever subject to bending. The cantilever method assumes that a point of inflection occurs at the midlength of all members in the frame, and that the axial force in each column of a story is proportional to its horizontal distance from the centroid of all the columns on that level. Imaginary pin joints can be inserted at each point of inflection, making the frame a statically determinate structure.
- moment distribution method: A method for analyzing an indeterminate structure through an iterative process of fixing a rigid joint in space, determining the fixed-end moments at the joint, then releasing the joint to allow it to rotate, and studying the transference of moments and rotations to other joints.
- portal method: A method for analyzing a multistory frame as a cantilever dominated by shear racking. The portal method assumes that a point of inflection occurs at the midlength of all members in the frame, and that the frame acts as a series of independent portals to which the total lateral shear at each level is distributed in proportion to the floor area each column supports. Imaginary pin joints can be inserted at each point of inflection, making the frame a statically determinate structure.
- drop panel: The portion of a flat slab thickened around a column or column capital to increase its resistance to shear.
- exterior panel: A panel of a flat slab having at least one edge which does not adjoin another panel.
- interior panel: Any panel of a flat slab that adjoins other panels along all four edges.
- elliptic paraboloid: A surface generated by sliding a vertical parabola with downward curvature along a perpendicular parabola with downward curvature, its horizontal sections are ellipses while its vertical sections are parabolas.
- hyperbolic paraboloid: A surface generated by sliding a parabola with downward curvature along a parabola with upward curvature, or by sliding a straight line segment with its ends on two skew lines. It can be considered to be both a translational and a ruled surface. Also called hypar.
- parabolic surface: A rotational surface generated by the revolution of a parabola about a vertical axis.
- paraboloid: A surface all of whose intersections by planes are either parabolas and ellipses or parabolas and hyperbolas.
- architect: One skilled in the design of builds and having technical knowledge of their construction.
- building official: A person designated by a governmental authority to administer and enforce the provisions of a building code.
- consultant: A person or organization hired to give professional or expert advice regarding a specific aspect of a project, as acoustics or lighting.
- contractor: A person or organization that contracts to provide the materials and perform the work for a construction project at a specified time and rate.
- developer: A person or organization that invests in and develops the potentialities of real estate, especially by initiating and implementing building projects for ownership, management, or resale.
- engineer: A person trained, skilled, or professionally engaged in any of various branches of engineering, as structural, mechanical, or electrical engineering.
- general contractor: A person or organization that contracts directly with an owner to manage and supervise a construction project, including the work performed by subcontractors.
- owner: A person or organization having the legal right or title to a piece of property, usually the architect’s client and party to the owner-architect agreement.
- speculative builder: A person or organization that develops and constructs buildings for subsequent sale or lease.
- subcontractor: One who contracts to carry through a definite part of the general contractor’s obligation in building.
- excavate: To dig earth below ground level.
- excavated pit: A pit below ground level, common in Thompson Pit House from the Northwest Plateau of the U.S.
- industrialized building: A construction process using a high degree of prefabrication in the manufacture of standardized units or components to speed assembly and erection of a building. Also called industrialized building.
- modular design: Modern design for mass production broadly based on the standard dimensions of prefabricated building parts. As a concept it was given philosophical respectability by Le Corbusier’s theory of the Modulor.
- prefab: Bomb-damage during the 1939-45 war obliged the British Government to establish a program to build temporary housing. This took the form of single-story dwellings, prefabricated in factories, with exteriors clad in aluminum, asbestos sheets, or concrete, and with bathrooms and kitchens (though small) fully equipped.
- quonset hut: A prefabricated usually metal building with a semicylindrical roof.
- systems building: A construction process using a high degree of prefabrication in the manufacture of standardized units or components to speed assembly and erection of a building. Also called industrialized building.
- volumetric building: Factory-built prefabricated building, moved whole to the site and there connected to foundations and services.
- tectonic: Of or pertaining to building or construction; architectural…
- barn raising: Also see raising.
- house raising: In the technical sense, the process of lifting a building, or part of a building, by means of screws, the hydraulic press, or other mechanical appliances.
- raising: In the technical sense, the process of lifting a building, or part of a building, by means of screws, the hydraulic press, or other mechanical appliances.
- barrell shell: A rigid cylindrical shell structure.
- conoid: A ruled surface generated by sliding a straight line with one end on a straight line segment and the other on a plane curve. Depending on the curve, a conoid may be circular, elliptic, or parabolic.
- cylindrical surface: A surface generated by sliding a straight line along a plane curve, or vice versa. Depending on the curve, a cylindrical surface may be circular, elliptic, or parabolic. Because of its straight line geometry, a cylindrical surface can be regarded as being either a translational or a ruled surface.
- elliptical surface: A rotational surface generated by the revolution of a half ellipse about a vertical axis.
- hypar: A surface generated by sliding a parabola with downward curvature along a parabola with upward curvature, or by sliding a straight line segment with its ends on two skew lines. It can be considered to be both a translational and a ruled surface.
- hyperboloid: A surface having a finite center with certain plane sections that are hyperbolas and others that are circles or ellipses.
- one-sheet hyperboloid: A ruled surface generated by sliding an inclined line segment on two horizontal circles. Its vertical sections are hyperbolas.
- rotational surface: A surface generated by rotating a plane curve about an axis.
- ruled surface: A surface generated by the motion of a straight line. Because of its straight line geometry, a ruled surface is generally easier to form and construct than a rotational or translational surface.
- saddle surface: A surface having an upward curvature in one direction and a downward curvature in the perpendicular direction. In a saddle-surfaced shell structure, regions of downward curvature exhibit archlike action, while regions of upward curvature behave as a cable structure. If the edges of the surface are not supported, beam behavior may also be present.
- sherical surface: A rotational surface generated by the revolution of a circular arc about a vertical axis.
- synclastic: Refers to a surface with the same kind of convex or concave curvature in all directions through all points (as in hemispherical dome). See also anticlastic.
- translational surface: A surface generated by sliding a plane curve along a straight line or over another plane curve.
- shim: To increase the height of a support by inserting a thin wedge-shaped or flat piece of hard material between the support and what rests upon it.
- shiming: To increase the height of a support by inserting a thin wedge-shaped or flat piece of hard material between the support and what rests upon it.
- impetus: The span of a building, roof, or arch.
- descriptive specification: A specification that stipulates the exact quantities and qualities of materials to be furnished and how they are to be assembled in a construction.
- performance specification: A specification that stipulates how a particular component or system must perform without giving the means to be employed to achieve the results.
- proprietary specification: A specification that stipulates the use of specific products, systems, or processes without provision for substitution.
- reference specification: A specification that refers to a standard specification to indicate the properties desired in a material or component and the methods of testing required to substantiate the performance of products.
- specifications: The part of the contract documents consisting of a detailed description of the technical nature of the materials, standards, and quality of execution of the work to be placed under contract.
- set square: A draughtsman’s tool, used with a T square, for drawing lines at right angles.
- T square: See tee square.
- T-square: A drafting aid by which parallel lines are drawn at right angles to the edge of the drawing board.
- straining-piece: Piece of timber acting in opposition to two equal and opposite forces at its extremities to keep those forces apart, essentially a strut.
- membrane stresses: The compressive, tensile, and shear stresses acting in the plane of the surface of a shell structure. A shell can sustain relatively large forces if uniformly applied. Because of its thinness, however, a shell has little bending resistance and is unsuitable for concentrated loads.
- bulk-active structure: A structure or structural member that redirects external forces primarily through the bulk and continuity of its material, as a beam or column.
- cable-restrained pneumatic structure: An air-supported structure that uses a net of cables placed in tension by the inflating force to restrain the membrane from developing its natural inflated profile.
- endoskeletal structure: In an animal or a building, a structure hidden within an outer skin.
- exoskeletal structure: In an animal or a building, a structure exposed on the exterior.
- form-active structure: A structure or structural member that redirects external forces primarily through the form of its material, as an arch or cable.
- grid structure: A framework of crisscrossing beams connected at their intersections by rigid joints and dispersing an applied load in two directions according to the physical properties and dimensions of the beam elements.
- irregular structure: A structural system characterized by any of various plan or vertical irregularities, as a soft or weak story, a discontinuous shear wall or diaphragm, or the asymmetrical layout of mass or lateral-force resisting elements. Irregular structures generally require dynamic analysis in order to determine the torsional effects of lateral forces.
- masonry structure: Materials such as stone, brick and adobe used for facing or structural support.
- metal structures: The first were bridges… and various industrial and storage buildings where cast-iron columns carried beams from which low segmental brick vaults sprang…
- molecular structure: Building of tubes and balls arranged to resemble a diagram of a molecule, as in the Atomium erected for the Brussels Exposition (1958).
- net structure: A membrane structure having a surface of closely spaced cables instead of a fabric material.
- air-supported structure: A pneumatic structure consisting of a single membrane supported by an internal air pressure slightly higher than normal atmospheric pressure, and securely anchored and sealed along the perimeter to prevent leaking. Air locks are required at entrances to maintain the internal air pressure.
- pneumatic structure: A membrane structure that is placed in tension and stabilized by the pressure of compressed air.
- regular structure: A structural system characterized by the symmetrical configuration of mass and lateral force-resisting elements and having no significant discontinuities of stiffness or strength. The effects of lateral forces on regular structures may be determined by static methods.
- shell structure: A thin, self-supporting membrane structure on the eggshell principle, usually constructed with lightweight concrete.
- surface structure: A structural member having a length and width that dominates its thickness.
- surface-active structure: A structure that redirects external forces primarily along the continuity of a surface, as a plate or shell.
- suspended structure: A structure whereby the floors are hung from a support above, rather than being propped from below.
- tent structure: A membrane structure prestressed by externally applied forces so that it is held completely taut under all anticipated local conditions. To avoid extremely high tensile forces, a membrane structure should have relatively sharp curvatures in opposite directions.
- trabeated structure: A structure based on post and beam construction as opposed to arched or vaulted construction.
- transition structure: A structure mediating between two or more different structural patterns.
- tube structure: A high-rise structure having perimeter lateral force-resisting systems internally braced by rigid floor diaphragms. A tube structure acts as a cantilevered box beam in resisting lateral forces.
- tube-in-tube structure: A tube structure having an inner braced tube added to the perimeter tube to improve its shear stiffness in resisting lateral forces.
- vector-active structure: A structure that redirects its external forces primarily through the composition of tension and compression members, as a truss.
- wood structure: A structure of wood-frame construction, especially light framing, which permits the use of a wide variety of cladding materials.
- feasibility study: A detailed investigation and analysis conducted to determine the financial, technical, or other advisability of a proposed construction project.
- cable support: A cable anchorage that allows rotation but resists translation only in the direction of the cable.
- point of support: In the plan of a building, a space of small dimensions where the superincumbent weight of structure is gathered together and met. Columns, pillars, and piers form points of support…
- pole support: Forked pole which supports a ridge beam, commonly used in a mat house.
- roller support: A structural support that allows rotation but resists translation in a direction perpendicular into or away from its face. Also called roller joint.
- support: That which upholds.
- support condition: The manner in which a structural member is supported and connected to other members, affecting the nature of the reactive forces developed on the loaded member.
- ang: In traditional Chinese construction, a kung (in the tou kung system of construction) which is raked at an angle; functions as a leverage arm to counterbalance the force applied by the purlins. After the Sung dynasty (10th to 13th cent.), served only as a decoration.
- arcuated construction: Stone masonry in compression, using arch and vault, in contradistinction to trabeated construction, that of the post and lintel.
- balloon frame: A structural system or framework evolved about 1830 using standardized lightweight lumber where 2-by-4 studs extended from foundation to roof. It replaced cumbersome heavy timber and braced framing and was made possible by the availability of inexpensive nails. After the Second World War it was generally replaced by the western or platform frame which was constructed one story at a time.
- balloon frames: Lightweight framework of two-by-fours held together with nails.
- balloon-frame: Lightweight framework of two-by-fours held together with nails.
- barn framing: Timber frame construction without studs between posts.
- bent: A rigid transverse frame assembly used in series such as the anchor-bent Dutch barn framing system. 2. A braced or rigid frame designed to carry vertical and lateral loads transverse to the length of a framed structure.
- box-frame: Type of construction resembling a series of boxes, involving structural walls at right angles to the façade (called cross-walls): its repetitive nature limits its use to hotel-bedrooms, small flats, hostels, etc. 2. Type of timber-framed structure where roof-trusses are supported on a frame of posts, tie-beams, and wall-plates.
- braced core: An interior service core braced to provide additional stiffness in resisting lateral forces.
- braced frame: A system of timber framing incorporating the major components of heavy timber framing at corners as well as the tops and bottoms of walls but depending on long diagonal braces at the outside corners for lateral stability. Knee braces are eliminated and lighter weight studs are used approximately two feet on center as intermediary structural supports. 2. A structural frame of linear members made rigid by a system of diagonal members.
- brick construction: Wall building with brick.
- chia liang: A wood-beam roof framing system in a traditional Chinese building.
- cobwork: Log house construction, as for retaining wall or breakwater.
- collapse mechanism: An unstable configuration of structural members susceptible to falling or breaking down under an applied load without a change in length of any individual member.
- colombage: Half-timber construction.
- combustible construction: Any construction that does not fulfill the requirements for noncombustible construction.
- construct: To put together parts in building.
- construction: The manner in which anything is composed or put together. 2. The act and the art of putting parts together to produce a whole. 3. A completed piece of a somewhat elaborate kind; especially a building in the ordinary sense. 4. The art, science, or business of building. 5. The process of building, from site preparation through erection, assembly, and finishing operations. 6. The manner in which materials are ordered, assembled, and united into a whole, as frame construction.
- construction class: A classification of a build’s construction according to the fire resistance of its major components: structural frame, exterior bearing and nonbearing walls, interior bearing walls, floors and ceilings, roofs, and enclosures of fire exits and vertical shafts. While each of the model codes differs in the detailed requirements for each construction type, they all limit the area and height of a building according to construction type and intended occupancy.
- construction type: A classification of a build’s construction according to the fire resistance of its major components: structural frame, exterior bearing and nonbearing walls, interior bearing walls, floors and ceilings, roofs, and enclosures of fire exits and vertical shafts. While each of the model codes differs in the detailed requirements for each construction type, they all limit the area and height of a building according to construction type and intended occupancy. Also called construction class.
- contignatio: A framework, as of beams. Also see contignatio.
- contignation: A framework, as of beams. Also see contignatio.
- Deconstructionism: An approach to building design which attempts to view architecture in bits and pieces. The basic elements of architecture are dismantled.
- determinate: Of or pertaining to a structure able to be analyzed completely by means of the principles of statics.
- dou: In Chinese and Japanese architecture, notched wooden block supporting a bracket in a timber system in which many brackets are employed.
- drywall frame: A knockdown frame having a double-return backbend for installation after a drywall partition is finished.
- dual system: A structural system for resisting lateral forces, combining the ductility of a moment-resisting frame with the rigidity of a shear wall.
- earth wall dwellings: A variety of buildings made of mud, sod, wood, and twigs.
- fireproof construction: In the early 1900s brick, cement, and asbestos shingles were marketed as economical “fireproof” choices for the small suburban house…
- fixed frame: A rigid frame connected to its supports with fixed joints. A fixed frame is more resistant to deflection than a hinged frame but also more sensitive to support settlements and thermal expansion and contraction.
- frame: The act, process, or manner of fitting and joining together relatively slender members to give shape and support to a structure.
- frame building: A building supported by a frame (timber, steel or reinforced concrete) rather than by load-bearing walls.
- frame construction: A building consisting primarily or entirely of wood structural members. The illustration on the following page shows the more commonly encountered structural members found in frame construction.
- frame system: A structural system consisting of a three-dimensional array of interconnected linear members that functions as a complete, self-contained unit in supporting gravity loads and shear walls or braced frames for resisting lateral forces.
- framed building: A building supported by a frame (timber, steel or reinforced concrete) rather than by load-bearing walls.
- framed overhang: An overhang of the upper section of a house over the vertical face of the section below.
- framed tube: A tube structure having closely spaced perimeter columns rigidly connected by deep spandrel beams.
- framework: The various supporting members that, when joined together, form the skeleton of a building.
- framing: A system of structural woodwork. 2. The rough timber structure of a building, such as partitions, flooring, and roofing. 3. Any framed work, as around an opening in an exterior wall.
- framing system: A method of construction the skeletal framework of a building. Four systems for constructing a wood frame structure are discussed in this book: balloon framing, braced framing, platform framing, and timber framing.
- full frame: A building frame employing a heavy braced framework of solid girts mortised into solid posts the full height of the frame, with studs one story high filling the interstices.
- full framing: A framing system involving the use of corner posts and bracing.
- Germanic post and girt: A style of construction in which east post was placed 4′ apart, was comparatively small (e.g., 4″ X 4″) and had a comparable girt connecting paired posts.
- Guastavino: A method of constructing the inner shell of a dome or vault with two or more layers of rectangular tiles; so called for the name of the inventor.
- heavy timber construction: A pre-industrial system of wooden building in which the members are joined by mortises and tenons held together with trunnels.
- heavy-timber construction: A construction type having noncombustible exterior walls and an interior structure of timbers and decking of specified minimum sizes. Also called mill construction.
- hewn and pegged: A frame construction system in which the beams are hewn with an adze (predating saws) and joined by large wooden pegs.
- hinged frame: A rigid frame connected to its supports with pin joints. The pin joints prevent high bending stresses from developing by allowing the frame to rotate as a unit when strained by support settlements, and to flex slightly when stressed by changes in temperature.
- hsiao shih ta mu: Any timber construction in Chinese traditional architecture which does not employ the tou kung system of construction; usually used for common dwellings and less important buildings.
- iron construction: Construction by framework of members of iron or steel, or of both. In referring to the general construction of buildings, the term means especially such a system of framing constituting the supporting members, as columns, girders, floor beams, or the greater part of them, the metal frame being either left exposed or covered as in skeleton construction.
- jacal: A type of simple construction once common in the American Southwest that uses vertical poles or logs embedded in trenches, then chinked with mud.
- jikugumi: The construction and assembly of the basic framework of a traditional Japanese building, including joists, pillars, rafters, cross-beams, etc.
- kisi: A kind of construction where poles are set up and layers of brush fastened upon them.
- kumimono: In traditional Japanese construction, a system of structural supports composed of weight-bearing blocks and bracket arms; also called tokyo.
- lift-slab construction: A technique of constructing multistory buildings in which all horizontal slabs are cast at ground level and, when cured, are raised into position by hydraulic jacks.
- light frame construction: A system of construction utilizing closely spaced and sheathed members of dimension lumber or light-gauge metal to form the structural elements of a building.
- light wood frame construction: A construction type having a framework of wood members not meeting the requirements for heavy-timber construction.
- masonry construction: The craft of stone wall building including the preparation and fixing of the stones. Also loosely applied to any form of construction involving the layout of bricks or blocks.
- mill construction: A construction type having noncombustible exterior walls and an interior structure of timbers and decking of specified minimum sizes.
- modular coordination: A dimensional system affording more efficient assembly of buildings from standard building products by correlating the dimensions of a structure and the unit sizes of the materials going into it, through reference to a 4″ cubical module.
- moment-resisting frame: A structural frame of linear members rigidly connected at their joints. Applied loads produce axial, bending, and shear forces in all members of the frame since the rigid joints restrain the ends of the members from rotating freely. In addition, vertical loads cause a rigid frame to develop horizontal thrusts at its base. A rigid frame is statically indeterminate and rigid only in its plane.
- mud building: Building done with natural materials mixed with water, as distinguished from that monolithic work which is made with cement or other prepared material. Pise work and adobe are strictly mud building. This kind of work was done largely in ancient Egypt, and it is evident that many of the forms of the massive stone building of later times were derived directly from the older use of the skeleton frame of light reeds, and the like, covered with mud probably applied in many successive coats.
- mud-and-stud: Timber-framed wall construction filled in with staves or battens as a base for a mud finish, also called clam-staff and daub or raddle and daub.
- multibay frame: A rigid frame having a continuous beam supported by and rigidly connected to three or more columns.
- multistory frame: A vertical series of superimposed rigid frames.
- mushroom construction: Early 20th c. type of reinforced concrete construction in which the tops of columns are shaped to form a circular disc much bigger than the diameter of the column: the shape is reminiscent of a mushroom-like form, or of the upper part of an Ancient-Egyptian bell-capital, but much more slender…
- needlework: A form of construction combining a framework of timber and a plaster or masonry filling; common in medieval houses.
- noncombustible construction: Construction having a structure of steel, concrete or masonry, and walls, floors and a roof of noncombustible materials.
- nonparallel system: A structural system having lateral force-resisting elements neither parallel nor symmetrical about the major orthogonal axes of the system.
- open-timbered: Having timberwork exposed; having the wooden framework not concealed by sheathing, plaster, or other covering.
- ordinary construction: A construction type having noncombustible exterior walls and an interior structure wholly or partly of light wood framing.
- ossature: The framework or skeleton of a building or part of a building, as the ribs of a groined vault or the frame of a roof.
- plank frame: An early style of house frame in which 1 1/2″-2″ thick oak planks 12″-15″ wide were placed flat-sided about 2″ apart into a rabbet on the exterior of the sill and plate. These plank studs extended two stories and were attached to the sill, girt and plate with oak pins. Exterior siding was attached to these planks.
- plank-and-beam construction: Floor or roof construction utilizing a framework of timber beams to support wood planks or decking.
- platform frame construction: A system of framing a building where the floor joists of each story rest on the walls of the story below.
- platform framing: A method of wood frame construction in which the floor construction of each story provides a platform for the construction of the walls, and each story is built independently of the one above.
- pole construction: A system of construction employing a vertical structure of pressure-treated wood poles which are firmly embedded in the ground as a pier foundation.
- pole house: A house of pole construction.
- post and beam: Also see post and lintel.
- post and beam construction: A simple building framing system that uses a series of vertical posts and horizontal beams.
- post and girt: A framing system consisting of large squared timbers. The posts are vertical while the girt are horizontal. The frame supports the floors and roof.
- post and lintel: A method of construction in which vertical beams (posts) are used to support a horizontal beam (lintel).
- post-and-beam: A simple framing system that used vertical posts and columns to support horizontal beams and rafters.
- post-and-beam construction: A system of framing where heavy timber posts and beams are used.
- post-and-beam framing: A simple framing system that used vertical posts and columns to support horizontal beams and rafters.
- post-and-lintel: A type of construction characterized by the use of vertical columns (posts) and a horizontal beam (lintel) to carry a load over an opening – in contrast to systems employing arches or vaults.
- post-and-lintel construction: A method of construction in which vertical beams (posts) are used to support a horizontal beam (lintel).
- post-and-lintel system: The fundamental principle of Greek architecture. The arcuated system — that involving the use of arches — was not used by the Greeks. Horizontal beams (lintels) are borne up by columns (posts).
- post-in-the-ground: A construction method using vertical posts set directly in the ground in rows to form walls. In French Colonial regions, called poteaux-en-terre.
- posts-in-ground: A house with upright posts driven directly into the ground.
- pot construction: A method of constructing vaults and domes with earthen pots fitted together in a succession of rings diminishing in diameter upward to form the concave…
- precast: Having received its final form before introduction into a structure, as precast concrete slabs, precast reinforced lintels, and the like.
- prefabricate: To fabricate or manufacture beforehand, especially in standardized units or components for quick assembly and erection.
- prefabricated: A house or building whose substantial parts were made entirely or in sections away from the building site.
- prefabrication: A house or building whose substantial parts were made entirely or in sections away from the building site.
- pre-fabrication: Buildings in which substantial components, such as roof, floors or walls, are manufactured whole or in sections off the building site.
- pressed clay construction: See adobe, cajon, and pise.
- protected light wood frame construction: Light wood frame construction having a structure and major components with fire-resistance ratings at least equal to those specified by the appropriate authorities.
- protected noncombustible construction: Noncombustible construction having a structure and major components with fire-resistance ratings at least equal to those specified by the appropriate authorities.
- protected ordinary construction: Ordinary construction having a structure and major components with fire-resistance ratings at least equal to those specified by the appropriate authorities.
- reconstruction: The process of repairing or renovating a building, work of art, etc., so as to restore it to its original condition or to a particular time – “the period of significance”
- rigid frame: A structural frame of linear members rigidly connected at their joints. Applied loads produce axial, bending, and shear forces in all members of the frame since the rigid joints restrain the ends of the members from rotating freely. In addition, vertical loads cause a rigid frame to develop horizontal thrusts at its base. A rigid frame is statically indeterminate and rigid only in its plane. Also called moment-resisting frame.
- rural building: A building of one or two stories made of frame construction.
- sandwich: Also see structural sandwich.
- single frame: Floor of one tier of common joints, without girders or binding-beams, or roof with one tier of common rafters, without principals, but stiffened with collar-beams, diagonal braces, etc.
- single-bay frame: A rigid frame of two columns and a beam defining a single bay.
- skeleton construction: That in which a steel frame carries all the weight, in contrast to the earlier bearing walls of masonry; the term might rationally be applied also to construction having a frame of reinforced concrete.
- skeleton frame: A freestanding frame of iron or steel that supports the weight of a building and on which the floors and outer covering are hung.
- skyscraper construction: The method of construction developed in Chicago in which all building loads are transmitted to a ferrous metal skeleton, so that any external masonry is simply a protective cladding.
- slab-block: Multi-story building, rectangular on plan.
- slow-burning construction: Any construction designed to diminish as far as possible the facility of ignition, and to hinder the spread of fire, while consisting entirely or in large part of combustible material.
- space frame: A three-dimensional framework in which all the members are interconnected to act as a single entity. Space frames are used for covering large spaces uninterrupted by supporting columns.
- space-frame: Large-scale framework systems, used in modern architecture to cover large spaces, such as Buckminster Fuller’s domes.
- square-framed: In joinery, framed with square and not molded pieces.
- steel construction: See iron construction.
- steel-frame: Describing a building in which the support is achieved by a closely knit structure of steel.
- stick built: A building constructed on the building site, piece by piece.
- stovewood construction: Found primarily in Wisconsin, involved embedding 8 to 10 inch-long log chunks, ends out, in limestone cement.
- straw bale construction: A method of construction common in the African prairies and later the American Midwest, and having a resurgence of interest today.
- stressed-skin: Type of complex structure involving curves and bendings, where the outer skin combines with a frame to produce a sound, strong, bent, curved structure.
- structural pattern: The arrangement of principal vertical supports for a structure, which influences the selection of an appropriate spanning system and establishes the possibilities for the ordering of spaces and functions.
- structural sandwich: Also see structural sandwich.
- system: A group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent things or parts forming a complex or unified whole, especially to serve a common purpose.
- ta mu tso: A traditional Chinese method of timber construction above the columns of the building and below the roof, used with the tou kung system, usually used in elaborate buildings, such as for royalty, temples, and large monasteries.
- tent: Portable tension structure in which the supports (usually a wooden pole or poles) both carry and are held in place by a membrane of canvas, skins, or cloth stretched over them and fixed by means of pegs driven into the ground. 2. Portable compression structure in which a self-supporting frame or armature is constructed over which a protective membrane is draped. Tents are of great antiquity as a type, and very elaborate examples have evolved for religious, ceremonial, or status reasons. Tensile architecture was developed from tent-like forms.
- three-hinged frame: A structural assembly of two rigid sections connected to each other and to its supports with pin joints. While more sensitive to deflection than either the fixed or hinged frame, the three-hinged frame is least affected by support settlements and thermal stresses. The three pin joints also permit the frame to be analyzed as a statically determinate structure.
- tilt-up construction: A method of casting reinforced concrete wall panels on site in a horizontal position when tilting them up into their final position.
- timber built: The use of timber for creating the structure of a wall.
- timber frame: A structural framing system incorporating large wooden members cut from tree trunks and shaped into square or rectangular sections with mortise and tenon joints held together with wooden pegs called trenals (from “tree-nail”). The frame is laterally braced with strategically placed knee braces.
- timber frame construction: A structural framing system incorporating large wooden members cut from tree trunks and shaped into square or rectangular sections with mortise and tenon joints held together with wooden pegs called trenals (from “tree-nail”). The frame is laterally braced with strategically placed knee braces.
- timber framing: The use of timber for creating the structure of a wall.
- timber-framed building: A building having timbers as its structural elements, except for the foundation.
- tokyo: See kumimono.
- trabeate: Of or pertaining to a system of construction employing beams or lintels. Also, trabeated.
- trabeated: A structure based on post and beam construction as opposed to arched or vaulted construction.
- trabeated system: Horizontal beams (lintels) are borne up by columns (posts). The fundamental principle of Greek architecture. The arcuated system – that involving the use of arches – was not used by the Greeks.
- trabeation: Construction using beams and posts; lintel construction.
- uniform system: A format developed by the Construction Specifications Institute for coordinating specifications, filing of technical data and product literature, and construction cost accounting, organized into 16 divisions based on an interrelationship of material, trade, or function. Also called Masterformat.
- unprotected light wood frame construction: Light wood frame construction having no fire-resistance requirements except for fire walls and enclosures of fire exits and vertical shafts.
- unprotected noncombustible construction: Noncombustible construction having no fire-resistance requirements except for fire walls and enclosures of fire exits and vertical shafts.
- unprotected ordinary construction: Ordinary construction having no fire-resistance requirements for the interior structure except for fire walls and enclosures of fire exits and vertical shafts.
- vault construction: In Gothic architecture, the architectural structure for directing pressures to maintain vaults.
- western frame: A wooden building frame having studs only one story high, regardless of the stories built, each story resting on the top plates of the story below or on the sill plates of the foundation wall.
- Western platform framing: Platform framing.
- wood frame construction: A building consisting primarily or entirely of wood structural members. The illustration on the following page shows the more commonly encountered structural members found in frame construction.
- wrought-iron frames: Used in a large number of 19th century and 20th century buildings, notably the Eiffel Tower (1887-89), Paris, designed by Gustave Eiffel (1832-1923).
- earth: There are long traditions of buildings made of earth or mud. In the 1960s proposals were mooted to create buildings by pouring concrete on to mounds of earth which would be excavated once the concrete had set, thus creating cave-like forms called earth-work architecture.
- maison de poteaux-en-terre: Posts in ground.
- poteaux en terre: Posts in the earth. A house made palisade fashion with logs placed vertically 3′ into the ground about 5″-6″ apart. Long, floor-to-ceiling diagonal corner braces stabilized the vertical logs.
- poteaux-en-terre: A house with upright posts driven directly into the ground.
- maison de poteaux-sur-solle: Timber frame built directly on a sill.
- poteaux sur solle: Posts on a sill. A palisade method of log-house construction in which the vertical logs were seated into a log sill placed on a rock foundation and itself in a trench. Otherwise the same as poteaux en terre.
- poteaux-sur-sole: Posts on a sill. A palisade method of log-house construction in which the vertical logs were seated into a log sill placed on a rock foundation and itself in a trench. Otherwise the same as poteaux en terre.
- banking up: The process of piling earth or sand against the outer walls of a building to preserve the contents from the effect of cold or sudden storm. An Observatory in a high place, as upon a mountain top, is protected in this way for the sake of the instruments as well as for the resident astronomers and their assistants.
- build: To erect a structure.
- building: The art and the practice of putting together material in such a way as to produce a structure of some elaboration; especially, in architectural usage, a dwelling house, hall for meeting, place of worship, or the like. 2. The structure so put together and composed.
- builtup: Term indicating the assembly of pieces or layers to complete a product.
- cabinetmaking: The art and the trade of making fine woodwork, whether for furniture (to which the term was formerly confined) or for the interior finish of houses, ships, and offices. It is distinguished from the rougher and less elaborate carpenter work by the careful and accurate fitting and high finish which it involves, by the lightness and relatively small scale of its productions, and by its predominant use of fine and hard woods…
- carpentry: The work of a carpenter. Also, the result of such work; building in wood, or woodwork in general. Carpentry is sometimes distinguished from framing as referring rather to the smaller members of a building, as window frames, stairs, if not highly finished, flooring, and the like; it is distinguished from joinery and cabinetmaking as being rougher and dealing rather with the essential parts of a structure than the more decorative parts, without which the building might still exist.
- carry up: To build up vertically, as a wall, and distinguished from extending such a wall or other structure horizontally. Thus a building law may limit the height to which side walls may be carried up in advance of and independently of the front wall; and a contract may specify that the whole wall shall be carried up of a uniform thickness.
- coring: The operation of clearing out the rubbish from the flues of a building upon its completion. 2. The operation of removing the core from a casting or other object.
- erect: To build. 2. In geometry, to draw a line at right angles to a specified base.
- evergreen bough: In this tradition dating back to early timber frames, a single evergreen bough is fastened to the uppermost point of a completed structural framework.
- fabricate: To construct by assembling diverse and usually standardized parts.
- fabrication: Construction.
- forging: A metal product shaped by hammering while softened by heat.
- fudge: To depart from correct drawing for the sake of appearance.
- fumigation: Disinfecting with gas for the destruction of germs, animal, or insect life.
- gas fitting: The art, practice, or trade of cutting, fitting, and putting together the pipes in buildings used for the conveyance of gas for lighting, heating, and cooking purposes…
- gas piping: The art and the process of fitting a house, or the like, with pipes for gas supply.
- hung: Secured in place… secured in such a way that the object so secured is free to move within certain limits…
- incineration: The reducing to ashes of any substance, all that is not left in that form being driven off in gaseous form.
- install: To place in position for use.
- jerry building: Poor and slight building in houses and the like; familiarly associated with small houses run up in long rows in the neighborhood of London. Rare in the U.S.
- jerry-built: Shoddily, cheaply, or unsubstantially built.
- measuring-up: Also see measuring-up.
- perforate: To form openings in something: a perforated wall therefore has openings, often arranged in patterns.
- registration: The process of determining and certifying an architect’s competency to practice under state laws.
- setting-out: The work of correctly locating a building upon the site which it is to occupy, according to the actual shape and dimensions of its ground plan, or of laying out any part of the work on a building.
- shoddy work: Careless, unworkmanlike results.
- superintendence: The act or process of examining the materials and watching the work of a building; especially such services when rendered by the architect or his representative…
- supervision: The overseeing of construction to make sure of its conformity to drawings and specifications.
- surveying: That branch of engineering which has for its object the location and measurement of the lines surrounding any portion of the earth’s surface, and from which the area of any such portion can be determined, and subsequently plotted in the form of a map; also, more particularly, the locating of points on the earth’s surface relatively to one another.
- top out: To finish the top of anything, as of a chimney; to cap. In brickwork, such a finish is called the topping-out courses.
- transportation: In architecture, the moving of building material, especially in large quantities or in single pieces of great size and weight…
- wiring: The process of fitting and placing wires in buildings, as for bells.
- workmanship: The quality of executed building.
- adz: A tool used for dressing wood, with an arched blade set at right angles to the handle.
- agitator truck: A truck equipped with a rotating drum to prevent segregation or loss of plasticity of the ready-mixed concrete being delivered to a construction site.
- amussis: A plane table of marble, used by the ancient Romans for testing the flatness of a surface.
- arcus ferreus: An ancient Roman method of plastering tiles laid on straight or curved iron bars.
- batter rule: Also see battering rule.
- battering rule: Also see battering rule.
- boning rod: Also see boning stick.
- boning stick: Also see boning stick.
- borning rod: See boning rod.
- bow compass: A drafting instrument for drawing small circles, its radius adjusted by a setscrew working against a spring.
- bow pen: Part of a small compass having legs held by a strong spring instead of a pivot, and adjustable to any span by a fine screw which compresses the spring. Consists of bow-dividers or spacers, bow-pen, and bow-pencil.
- bow pencil: Part of a small compass having legs held by a strong spring instead of a pivot, and adjustable to any span by a fine screw which compresses the spring. Consists of bow-dividers or spacers, bow-pen, and bow-pencil.
- broadax: An ax with a wide flat head and comparatively short handle.
- buggy: A cart, often motor-driven, for transporting heavy materials, as freshly mixed concrete, for short distances at a construction site.
- builders’ jack: See jack.
- building appliances: Implements, fittings, and machinery used by builders in preparing material and in erecting or repairing buildings.
- cast staff: In plastering, a shape, usually decorative, made in a mold and then fastened in place.
- centre mould: A thin piece of board or the like, the edge of which is shaped to a given profile, and which, when rotated about a pivot at one end, will cut corresponding circular moldings in soft plaster or the like.
- centrolinead: An instrument for ruling converging lines whose meeting point is beyond the limits of the drawing. Used particularly in perspective drawing. It is made in a great variety of forms based on different mechanical and geometrical principles.
- chalk line: A marking line used by builders. A cord is rubbed with white or colored chalk, held taut between two ends of the line desired, then plucked in the middle to leave a straight line on the surface adjacent.
- chalk-line: A marking line used by builders. A cord is rubbed with white or colored chalk, held taut between two ends of the line desired, then plucked in the middle to leave a straight line on the surface adjacent.
- chassis: A frame on which a drawing or painting is to be stretched.
- chisel: A carpenter’s cutting tool. 2. A type of pattern in wooden walling.
- clamp: A piece or instrument for securing or holding, generally distinguished from other devices used for that purpose as being applied to the surface or the parts, and not passing through the material, although perhaps entering a short distance. It may be a member to unite two or more parts of a structure permanently together, as a cleat or strap; or a tool to hold temporarily one or more pieces of material in process of being prepared or finished, as a carpenter’s screw clamp.
- clepsydra: In ancient Greece, a device for measuring elapsed time by the quantity of water discharged through an opening.
- compass: A drafting instrument for describing circles of variable radii.
- concrete mixer: A metal drum of several cubic yards capacity which can be revolved to mix the ingredients of concrete, sometimes while being transported on a motor-driven chassis.
- conte crayon: A fairly hard French square-stick crayon; the dark reddish brown variety has long been a favorite for architectural sketching.
- corbel mould: A pattern for corbelling, as in brickwork or plaster; usually, in practice, shaped out of a piece of board or thin metal, and giving the moldings, etc., in reverse or concave section.
- crow quill: A pen point of diminutive size.
- crow-quill: A small, sharp-pointed steel drawing pen, having the barrel holder and pen in one piece; supposed to replace the small quill pen made from a crow feather, anciently employed for every fine free-hand drawing in line.
- curves: Aids in drafting in the form of thin plastic or wood cut to the profiles of various irregular curves.
- curvometer: A measuring instrument registering units of length by running a small wheel along curved or irregular lines.
- darby: A tool of plasterers and masons, used for smoothing a surface that is not to be troweled hard.
- demicircle: A tool for measuring and indicating angles, and is not unlike an ordinary protractor, with a revolving bar mounted on a pivot at the center of the circle, and a compass set firmly in the plane of the graduated arc.
- diminishing rule: A template used to establish the entasis of a column.
- dividers: A pair of compasses having both legs terminating in points, for use in laying off given distances, or in dividing a given distance into a given number of equal parts; hence its name.
- divining rod: A forked branch, usually of hazel, by which it is claimed that the location of underground water can be ascertained.
- dolly: Short length of timber or metal on top of a pile acting as a buffer between it and the ram or monkey. 2. The same, used to make the pile longer if driven beyond the reach of the arm. 3. A tool for receiving and holding the head of a rivet while the other end is being headed.
- dotting pen: Same as dotting pen.
- dowels: A cylindrical pin used in woodworking joints. 2. A reinforcing bar projecting above a base to strengthen the joint between the base and the object set upon it.
- drawing board: A rectangular, smooth-surface slab, usually less than an inch thick and usually of soft wood, on which is fastened paper, linen, or other thin material on which a drawing is to be made.
- drawing chisel: A chisel-like instrument having a broad blade with a very sharp oblique end. It is used for trimming the end of tenons and for cutting or marking deep incisions across the grain of the wood, guided by a square or rule.
- drawing instruments: Implements used in drawing, as distinguished from painting; particularly those used in geometrical, mechanical (architectural) drawing; the T square, straight edge, triangles, curves, rule or scale, compasses, dividers, ruling pen, dotting pen, and protractor are those commonly used; to which may be added such special contrivances as the centrolinead, ellipsograph, pantograph, spline, etc.
- drawing pen: A double-nibbed instrument for making ink lines of variable width then guided along an edge, as triangle or straitedge.
- drawshave: A knife-like tool used to shave shingles into a wedge shape.
- drop chute: A chute for containing and directing a falling stream of freshly mixed concrete so as not to cause segregation.
- falsework: The temporary framework for supporting a structure under construction that is not yet capable of supporting itself.
- fire irons: Fireplace tools, usually a shovel, poker and tongs.
- foot level: A pocket instrument consisting of a foot rule hinged in the middle and having a small spirit level set in the edge of one arm, and generally containing a pivoted and graduated blade by which any angle formed by the two arms of the rule may be subtended and measured; or by which may be determined the slope made by one arm with the horizontal as shown by the level.
- fornax: In ancient Roman construction, a kiln.
- froe: A wedge-shaped blade set perpendicular to its handle.
- gantree: A traveling-crane structure, as for work on the walls or celling of a lofty interior.
- gantry: A traveling-crane structure, as for work on the walls or celling of a lofty interior.
- gauntry: Also see gantree.
- gawntry: Also see gantree.
- gin: Originally spelled gyn, a tripod with windlass, for use in construction.
- gouge: A chisel with arc edge.
- gyn: Also see gin.
- hickey: A tool used for bending pipe, metal conduit, or reinforcing steel.
- hod: A box for carrying building materials, especially mortar; usually shaped like a trough and with a pole secured to the bottom. The trough or box being set upon the laborer’s shoulder, the pole serves to steady and balance the load. Hods are now usually raised to the scaffolding by machinery of some kind.
- hoist: A device for lifting articles of some weight or bulk.
- horn center: A small disk, originally of transparent horn, with three minute pointed legs, to be placed on a drawing at the center of a required circle or arc, to protect the paper from injury by the point of the compasses.
- horn centre: A small disk, originally of transparent horn, with three minute pointed legs, to be placed on a drawing at the center of a required circle or arc, to protect the paper from injury by the point of the compasses.
- horse-out: To cut (a piece of lumber) into a peculiar shape. In this sense, limited to one or two special members of a building; thus, a horsed string of a flight of stairs is one which has been sawed alternately horizontally and vertically so that the upper edge shows a series of right-angled projections to which may be secured the treads and risers which are to form the steps. The string of a stair so treated is said to be horsed or horsed-out, as distinguished from ploughed or ploughed-out; and the same terms are used for the completed stairs.
- jack: A device for lifting heavy weights, utilizing leverage, the screw, or hydraulic pressure. 2. A hydraulic device for stretching and stressing tendons in the prestressing of a concrete member.
- jedding axe: In parts of Great Britain, a mason’s axe, or hammer.
- jig: A framework in one plane to facilitate the assembly of duplicate pieces of construction.
- jig saw: A thin, narrow saw blade operated mechanically up and down to achieve sawing along curved lines.
- jointer: A woodworking tool for truing the edges of boards that are to be closely joined.
- levelling rod: Also see levelling staff.
- levelling staff: Also see levelling staff.
- lewisson: Also see lewis.
- lining pen: Same as drawing pen.
- mandrel: A heavy steel tube or core that is inserted into a thin-walled casing to prevent it from collapsing in the driving process, and then withdrawn before concrete is placed in the casing.
- maul: A wooden club with a variety of uses. One was to hit a froe in making shingles. Another was to hit wooden pegs into holes to hold the tenon in the mortise.
- mitre box: Also see mitre jack.
- mitre jack: Also see mitre jack.
- norma: A square for measuring right angles; employed in ancient Roman construction by masons, carpenters, builders, etc.
- packing-piece: Element, e.g. block of wood, to raise e.g. a beam to the required height. 2. Timber at the back of a cruck-blade to carry a purlin.
- panel board: A drawing board of the kind used by water color draftsmen, by which the paper can be held flat and in place without the trouble of saturating it with water and so straining it tight…
- pavement saw: A wheel-mounted, rotary power saw equipped with a silicon-carbide or diamond blade for cutting a control joint in a hardened concrete slab.
- pencil: A small brush for writing or painting, such as, in European countries, are made of camel’s-hair, sable fur, and the like, and, in the East, of different vegetable fibers.
- pit saw: A long two-man saw which was used vertically with one man in the pit under the saw and another man above guiding it. The log was placed horizontally.
- planimeter: An instrument to measure an area by tracing its perimeter.
- plough: See plow.
- plumb bob: A weight, usually joined, suspended at the lower end of a cord, with which to test verticality.
- plumb rule: An instrument for determining verticality, consisting of a narrow board with straight parallel edges, having a plumb line attached to one end and a hole at the other end large enough to allow the plumb to swing freely. The verticality of its edges is known when the plumb line coincides with the center line of the board, as marked on its face.
- proportional dividers: An instrument consisting of two double-pointed bars joined by a movable pivot, enabling lengths picked up by the points of one end to be enlarged or reduced by the opposite pair of points in a proportion established by the movable pivot.
- protractor: A drafting instrument for laying out angles.
- right line pen: See under pen.
- roulette: Same as dotting pen.
- rule: A strip of wood or metal with a straight or true edge, used to assist workmen in making a straight or true work, as in plastering, to assist in keeping a surface in plane…
- ruler: See straight edge.
- salamander: A portable box stove for use as an aid in drying plastered walls.
- sanguine: A blood-red iron oxide crayon.
- sash saw: A vertical saw blade clamped into a rectangular frame called a sash and powered by water.
- scaffold: A temporary platform to support workers and materials on the face of a structure and to provide access to work areas above the ground. 2. Any elevated platform.
- scansoria machina: Also see scansoria machina.
- scansorium: In early Roman construction; scaffolding. Also see scansoria machina.
- setting-out rod: See rod.
- shooting board: A slab of wood or metal used by carpenters, and provided with a device for holding an object while it is being shaped for use. 2. An inclined board fitted to slide material from one level to another.
- skirreh: In surveyors’ work, a cord wound upon a reel or prepared in another way, for convenient delivery and recovery, used in laying out foundations, trenches, and the like.
- sprue: A projecting inlet in a mold through which metal is poured for a casting, the resulting surplus projecting metal being removed later.
- staging: Temporary platform working space in and about a building under construction or repair. 2. Scaffolding.
- straight line pen: Same as drawing pen.
- surveyor: One skilled in land measurement.
- swage: A tool or die used in importing a given shape to hot metal in a stamping press or rolling mill, or on an anvil, or to sheets of cold metal, as in galvanized iron or copper work.
- template: A metal or wooden frame for testing the shape of building materials.
- ten-foot rod: A device commonly used by carpenters in setting up their work.
- thumb tack: A short tack with a broad flat top, used for holding drawing paper and the like on a board.
- tooth axe: See axe.
- toothed chisel: A chisel of which the cutting edge is indented, used to roughen regularly, give texture to, or dress a surface of masonry.
- tracing cloth: A smooth linen fabric coated with size to make it transparent and fit for tracing; used for draughtsmen for drawings because less destructible than tracing paper, and because it make possible an indefinite number of repetitions of drawings made upon it by sun print and other processes.
- trammel: An instrument for describing a large circle or an ellipse.
- traveller: Same as travelling crane. Properly, that part which travels only.
- travelling crane: Same as travelling crane. Properly, that part which travels only.
- trowel: A mason’s tool made of a thin plate of metal, approximately lozenge-shaped, always pointed at the end, and fitted with a handle…
- truck mixer: A truck equipped with a rotating drum and a separate water tank for mixing concrete en route to a construction site.
- vise: A screw-actuated clamping device, usually fastened to a work bench.
- water ram: See under ram.
- weather back: Any application to or treatment of the back of a wall to render it more impervious to wind or water, as back plastering, coats of tar or asphaltum, layers of sheathing paper, etc.
- woodworking machinery: Power machinery for shaping and finishing wood…
- braced tube: A framed tube structure tied together by a system of diagonal braces.
- bundled tubes: An assembly of narrow tubes tied directly to each other to form a modular structure that behaves like a multicellular box girder cantilevering out of the ground. More tubes are sometimes provided in the lower portion of a tall structure where greater lateral force resistance is needed.
- perforated shell tube: A tube structure having perimeter shear walls with less than 30% of the surface area perforated by openings.
- sonetube: A poured concrete mold that creates a concrete tube form.
- trussed tube: A braced tube structure having trussed wall frames of widely spaced columns tied together by diagonal or cross bracing.
- tubular: Having a section like a tube of any shape; thus a tubular girder is a built-up plate beam which is a tube of rectangular section.
- bearing wall system: A structural system consisting of vertical planar elements for supporting gravity loads and shear walls or braced frames for resisting lateral forces.
- nonbearing wall: A wall that does not support a vertical load.
- non-load-bearing wall: A wall supporting no load other than its own weight.
- partition wall: An interior wall that separates adjacent rooms within a single story of a building, but does not support a load.
- debris: Accumulated rubbish or waste matter resulting from the remodeling or building operation.
- fly ash: Fine particles of ash recovered from the waste gases of a solid-fuel furnace.
- trash: Waste matter resulting from a building operation.
- waste: Refuse material resulting from a building operation. 2. A drain line of plumbing. 3. An overflow line in piping.
Also see Architecture index.