A Preservation Primer for the Property Owner (1978)

Foreword 1
Planning a Preservation Project 2
Financing 3
Historical Research 4
Physical Investigation 5
Emergency Repairs and Stabilization 6
Exterior Woodwork 7
Masonry 8
Metal Building Parts 9
Roofing 10
Painting 11
Floor Coverings 12
Energy Efficiency 13
Mechanical Systems 14
Grounds and Landscapes 15

Historic preservation has become a substantial force of social, economic, and aesthetic benefit to communities across New York State. Recognizing the architectural charm and spatial advantages of old houses, families and individuals are moving back to older, pedestrian-scaled neighborhoods. These personal endeavors — often aided by federal, state, and municipal neighborhood preserva­tion programs – have resulted in the rejuvenation of many once-declining communities. Merchants also are realizing that older buildings possess character, tradition, and fine craftsmanship that no suburban shopping center can duplicate. Carefully renovated downtown business districts, which a few years ago might have seemed old fashioned, are now becoming the nuclei of urban revitali­zation. In fact, in nearly every community across the state home owners and business people are involved in re­habilitating older buildings.

But, while much of this improvement work is under­ taken with good intentions, the wrong techniques or types of materials are often used. As a result, the inte­grity of the building is compromised, and the work done actually damages the building it was intended to preserve – and often proves more expensive than the proper treat­ment. Many property owners welcome helpful informa­tion, but they do not read the specialized publications in which this kind of information appears, such as pres­ervation journals and technical leaflets.

To reach this broad audience, the Preservation League of New York State, with the support of a grant from the New York State Council on the Arts, produced during 1978 a newspaper column series called “Preservation for the Property Owner.” Each column in the series focused on a particular task or special problem commonly en­countered in rehabilitating older buildings. The series, which appeared on a biweekly basis, was syndicated in nearly 50 newspapers, including pennysavers, county weeklies, major city dailies, and preservation newsletters. The Preservation League has compiled the series of arti­cles into this booklet in order to reach an even wider audience.

The Preservation League is a private, nonprofit, state­ wide, membership organization which was founded in 1974 to stimulate and encourage historic preservation in New York State. The Preservation League serves as a statewide clearinghouse and coordinator to enable preservationists to share information on projects, educa­tional programs, and publications. The League publishes a bimonthly newsletter, technical leaflets, a legislative report, and special reports.

Frederick D. Cawley

Assistant Director

Planning a Preservation Project

Rehabilitating an old building may entail many different kinds of activities, from those demanded by deteriorated physical conditions to those needed to accommodate modern functions. Rehabilitation requirements may range from the simple repair and painting of exterior woodwork to complete reconditioning; in addition, per­ sonal preferences may dictate the replacement of a par­ticular mantel or the removal of walls and floors to create new living or commercial spaces.

The owner of an old property must deal with existing materials which have aged and in some cases may have decayed. Although such conditions may sometimes be a disadvantage, usually there is ample compensation in the amenities, such as high ceilings, hand finished details, elaborate plasterwork, and heavy construction.

Physical Investigation
Budget limitations may dictate the extent of work to be done, but all decisions should be based on an overall plan and knowledge of the house. Thus, the first step in any rehabilitation plan should be a complete physical investigation of the building, taking into consideration the condition, usefulness, and aesthetic value of each element. A thorough inspection will eliminate potential surprises that can ruin a budget.

The services of a professional building inspector, archi­tect, or engineer experienced in preservation may be most useful in this investigation. To the novice, prob­lems may appear to be neither more, or less, serious than they really are. A crack in a brick wall due to set­tlement, for instance, may appear to be serious when it is actually an old condition, no longer active and not in need of new repairs. Conversely, a leaking gutter may seem to be a simple repair, but the moisture may have caused a serious outbreak of rot in the framing system of the house. The most important service that an ex­perienced professional can provide is an evaluation of the relative importance of all needed work. The neglect of high priority items will inevitably be expensive.

Selecting an Architect and Contractor
If major changes to a structure are anticipated, the advice of an experienced preservation architect should be sought. Sensitivity to the qualities of old buildings and familiarity with the special technical knowledge required in working with historic building materials are important factors to be considered when selecting an architect. It is advisable to examine examples of the work of several architects before making decisions.
An experienced preservation architect may save the owner more than the cost of his fee by anticipating problems and adapting the existing spaces to the client’s needs without major structural changes, thereby keeping construction costs down. An architect will also take responsibility for ensuring compliance with existing building codes and for coordinating the construction work. For major work, architects are usually paid on a percentage of construction costs (about 10%), but may be retained at an hourly rate for smaller projects.

If an owner cannot do the work himself, a contractor experienced in preservation should be sought. It is helpful to visit the contractor’s completed rehabilitation projects to examine his work, and it is advisable to get a written bid from more than one contractor. An exper­ienced preservation contractor will tend to conserve building fabric and save the owner money. An insensi­tive contractor can ruin the best planned rehabilitation.

Basic Guidelines
In the absence of an architect, it is important that prop­erty owners follow a disciplined approach to planning a rehabilitation project. Those qualities which cannot be found in new construction and which attracted the owner to an old building originally should be maintained. Irreversible removal of historic building fabric, especially decorative details, should be avoided. In fact, it is often less expensive to repair or make use of the existing mate­ rial than to tear it out and start anew. New techniques are constantly being developed to save damaged or de­cayed materials at reasonable costs. Modern conveni­ences should be inserted into the building with as much sensitivity as possible.

The most important quality in any rehabilitation is patience. The end product will be only as good as the hours of careful thought that go into the planning and the time taken during construction to repair and protect the important qualities of the building.

This article was prepared by Robert N. Pierpont, a building conservation and materials consultant with the Preservation/Design Group, 388 Broadway, Albany, New York 12207.

Suggestions for Further Reading

• The Care of Old Buildings Today: A Practical Guide. Donald lnsall (197 pp., illus., 1974). $14.95, postpaid, hard cover. Available from Preservation Bookshop, 740 Jackson Pl., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006.
• Living With Old Houses. Advisory Service of Greater Portland Landmarks (105 pp., illus., 1975). $7.50, post­ paid, soft cover. Available from Greater Portland Land­ marks, 165 State St., Portland, Me. 04101.
• A Practical Guide to Storefront Rehabilitation. Norman M. Mintz (6 pp., illus., 1977). $1.00, postpaid, soft cover. Available from Preservation Le, •0 of New York State, 13 Northern Blvd., Albany, N.Y. 12210.
• Preservation and Conservation: Principles and Practices. Sharon Thomas, ed. (547 pp., illus., 1976). $16.00, postpaid, hard cover. Available from Preservation Book­ shop, 740 Jackson Pl., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006.
• Rehabilitating Old Houses. George Stephen (13 pp., illus., 1976). $.50, postpaid, soft cover. Available from Preservation Bookshop, 740 Jackson Pl., N.W., Washing­ton, D.C. 20006.

Financing

Increasing construction costs and a national emphasis on energy and building conservation have stimulated an awareness of the economic benefits of preservation. As a result, the property owner undertaking a preservation project will find funds more readily available than ever before from both public and private sources.

Since governmental programs and private lending poli­cies differ among communities, the first step an owner should take in planning financing is to consult with organizations which have expertise in the field. Local preservation organizations are often good sources of information, since they may be familiar with current lending policies of area banks and may be able to assist an owner in preparing a financial package. Local plan­ning or community development offices can provide information on existing governmental programs and technical assistance in applying for them.

Federal grants and loans to private owners are usually administered through state or local governments. Pro­cedures differ among agencies, but owners should be prepared for regulations to follow, forms to complete, and time delays.

Community Development Block Grants
Community Development Block Grants are an import­ ant source of funding for localities and potentially for private owners. Funds are supplied directly to the com­ munity by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) for projects that benefit low- or moderate-income persons, aid the elimination of slums or blight, or meet Community Development needs. The locality has great flexibility in programming to meet its needs, and a common use for the funds has been establishment of financial programs for declining neighborhoods and commercial areas. Property owners within designated areas may be eligible for low-interest loans or grants for rehabilitation. Most funds are awarded to urban areas, but some are earmarked for small towns and rural areas. For further information contact the local planning office.

HUD Loans
HUD provides a variety of loan programs for both resi­dential and nonresidential structures. Section 312 loans, administered by local government, are direct federal loans for rehabilitation of properties within Community Development areas. The interest rate is 3% to 7% ac­ cording to income level, with up to 20-year terms. The loans provide funds to bring the property up to local code standards and generally do not exceed $27,000 per dwelling unit. For further information, contact the local planning office.

FHA Loans
For residential property owners having difficulty obtain­ing financing, the Title I Home Improvement Loan Pro­ gram provides FHA insurance for loans from private lending institutions. Loans are made at market rates, not to exceed 12%. The Historic Preservation Loan Pro­ gram expands Title I specifically for properties which are eligible for or listed on the National Register of His­toric Places. Requests must be channeled through the State Historic Preservation Office, Division for Historic Preservation, New York State Office of Parks and Recrea­tion, Agency Building 1, Empire State Plaza, Albany, New York 12238.

Federal Preservation Grants and Tax Incentives
Buildings listed on the National Register either individ­ually or as components of historic districts are also eligible for matching historic preservation grants-in-aid of up to 50% of the cost of acquisition and/or capital improvements. Authorized by the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, these grants are a principal source of preservation funding. Contact the State His­toric Preservation Office for more information on this program.

The federal Tax Reform Act of 1976 contains significant financial incentives relating to rehabilitation of income-producing properties of historic significance. Under the new provisions of the act, owners of certified historic properties can take advantage of tax benefits on rehabilitation expenses through a five-year write-off of these expenditures. In addition, the tax deduction for­merly granted for demolition of a historic structure, as well as the accelerated depreciation for new construc­tion on that site, will be denied to a developer. For in­ formation on the act and on certification of structures, contact the State Historic Preservation Office.

Small Business Administration Loans
Commercial property owners may benefit from long­ term loans and guarantees from the Small Business Administration. SBA guarantees 90% of a rehabilitation project, if it involves creation or expansion of a business and cannot be financed conventionally. Low-interest SBA loans (6-5/8% interest rate for 25-year terms) may be available if a Local Development Company exists in the area. The federal government has contracted with the firm of Burgos and Associates, Inc. (offices in New York City, Long Island, Syracuse, and Albany) to pro­ vide free business consulting services to minorities, in­cluding the socially and economically disadvantaged, and to be of assistance in packaging SBA loans.

Local planning departments can supply further informa­tion on federal programs. Municipalities may also assist in financing or may have mechanisms for acquiring property at a nominal expense, such as tax sales, home­ steading or vacant buildings programs.

Private Financing
Government funds rarely finance a project completely, but may provide leverage for private financing. Before approaching any bank, be sure that the project makes financial sense and is carefully worked out on paper. Neighborhood preservation groups often have experience in this area and may provide valuable technical assist­ance. A personal visit to the bank can be crucial. Banks are looking for a sense of stability; the applicant should be sure of what he is doing and the project should appear routine.

Lending policies vary among banks, so a buyer should be prepared to shop around. A buyer should first con­ tact the bank that holds the existing mortgage, then the bank with which he normally does business, then other banks which may have liberal lending policies. Fees can be saved if it is possible to assume an existing mortgage. Down payments requirements for mortgages vary, as to interest rates on home improvement loans.

Home Improvement and Construction Loans
The type of financing sought· will depend upon the project. Home improvement loans, available up to
$15,000, are best utilized for small projects. They in­ volve little paper work and no fees, but the interest rate is high (10% to 12%). Construction loans are effec­tive for larger-scale rehabilitation. They are based upon rehabilitation costs plus purchase price, if applicable. The bank approves the plans and reimburses for the rehabilitation as work is completed; the owner pays off the debt as a mortgage (usually 8½%).

It is not always necessary to arrange financing through a bank. A private mortgage may be advantageous to both parties; the negotiable interest rate benefits the buyer, and the seller receives monthly payments, which may help on taxes if he has realized a capital gain. Local preservation organizations may have established revolv­ing funds, lending for rehabilitation at low interest rates. Exploring all possibilities and planning sensibly will make financing a preservation project less of a burden.

This article was prepared by Ruth A. Lawlor, Adminis­trator, Downtown Troy Revitalization Program, City Hall, Troy, New York 12180.

Suggestions for Further Reading

• Federal and State Aid for Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation (26 pp., 1977). No charge, soft cover. Available from Division for Historic Preservation, New York State Office of Parks and Recreation, Albany, N.Y. 12238.
• A Guide to Federal Programs: Programs and Activities Related to Historic Preservation. Nancy D. Schultz (298 pp., 1974). $9.00, postpaid, soft cover. Available from Preservation Bookshop, 740 Jackson Pl., N.W., Washing­ ton, D.C. 20006.
• A Guide to Federal Programs for Historic Preservation, 1976 Supplement. Nancy D. Schultz, ed. (110 pp., 1976). $3.50, postpaid, soft cover. Available from Preservation Bookshop, 740 Jackson Pl., N.W., Washing­ ton, D.C. 20006.
• A Guide to Financing and Development of Small Resto­ ration Projects. Howard Nanen (43 pp., 1976). $2.00, postpaid, soft cover. Available from Hartford Architecture Conservancy, 65 Wethersfield Ave., Hartford, Ct. 06114.
• The Preservation Directory: A Guide to Programs, Organizations and Agencies in New York State. (125 pp., 1977). $5.00, postpaid, soft cover. Available from Preservation League, 13 Northern Boulevard, Albany, N.Y. 12210.

Historical Research

Researching an older building can be an adventure. In addition, the information that the property owner gleans from studying historical records and examining extant stylistic evidence can aid in making decisions during the rehabilitation process. A diligent researcher can usually discover the date of construction, as well as the names and occupations of the owners over the years.

Four Research Requirements
As in all detective work, an inquisitive mind and deter­mination are necessities. Study each item of informa­tion for clues which may lead to other sources of infor­mation. For instance, the date of an estate auction found in the property abstract may lead to a contem­porary newspaper notice of the auction containing a helpful description of the property. Do not be dis­suaded if you fail to be rewarded by every source con­sulted; many leads may not produce results, but many others will.

Secondly, handle the collected information carefully and critically. Transcribe or summarize data accurately, and note full bibliographic data on its source. Evaluate all sources for their trustworthiness; remember that pri­mary or original sources (those contemporary with an event) are generally more reliable than secondary sources (those written after the event).

Third, do not unnecessarily repeat the work of others. Check with local preservation groups, municipal land­ marks or historic district boards, local historians, and local historical societies to determine whether they have information on the building.

Fourth, utilize fully and efficiently the many resources that are available. Ask at a local library for bibliogra­phies on research materials and on the history of the region. Investigate county histories, old photographs, post cards, panoramic views, and travelers’ accounts. Old county atlases, wall maps, and insurance maps can also be helpful. A knowledge of the overall history of a locality can provide insights about why a building was erected at a particular time and place. If the name of the architect is known, catalogues, directories, biographi­cal dictionaries and indexes on architects and architec­ture may provide additional background information.

The Most Valuable Source – The Property Abstract
Probably the single most valuable and reliable source is the property abstract, or chain of title, which frequently is prepared by a professional abstractor in conjunction with the issuance of title insurance for the property. The abstract provides a history of the land transactions by summarizing relevant deeds, mortgages, wills, probate records, litigation, and tax sales; the abstract contains the names of owners, dates when the property changed hands, and descriptions of property boundaries.

If an abstract is not available, it is possible to trace the title in county records. Begin in the county clerk’s office with the most recent deed; usually each deed will refer to the prior property transaction. Deeds are indexed by grantor (seller) and by grantee (buyer) with references to where they are contained in a liber (book) and folio (page).

Even when a property abstract is available, check the original documents for more complete information. For instance, estate records, which may be filed with wills, sometimes contain personal property inventories with room-by-room descriptions of the contents. Court records frequently contain descriptions of buildings ac­ companied by maps. Maps may also be filed with deeds.

Local Public Records
The old records of the city, village, town, and county tax assessors are another important resource for re­ searching the physical history of a building. Frequently, assessments are listed separately from the land; increases in valuation may suggest new improvements. Assessors’ records may also contain descriptions of buildings.

The municipal buildings department may have old building permits on file. If a building was erected before a permit was required, it may still be worthwhile to check for permits for alterations and additions. Permits gen­erally list the architect, the contractor, the client, and the cost and date of the work. Occasionally, architec­tural drawings are filed with permits.

The local public works department may also contain information important to the history of a building, such as records of the dates of water and sewer connec­tions and old maps.

Investigating Former Owners and Occupants
Annual city and county directories list a person’s address and often occupation. Some directories are also organ­ized by street address and thereby can supply ready in­ formation on occupants.
Census records provide information on occupants and use. The county clerk’s office usually has local records of the state census. The public library can help locate microfilm copies of federal census records.
Dates from other sources facilitate research in old news­ papers. Obituaries of owners, architects, and builders are often very helpful. Articles on cornerstone and dedi­cation ceremonies frequently contain detailed descrip­tions of public and commercial structures.

Old letters, diaries, account books, business papers, architectural drawings, and other manuscript materials relating to the building’s owners, occupants, and archi­tects frequently reveal much about a building’s construc­tion and use. Sometimes former occupants or their descendants have relevant manuscripts and old photo­ graphs, prints, and drawings showing the building. Guides to doing genealogical research may help locate descendants. Conversations with former occupants and neighbors often provide valuable leads.

Learning About Architectural Styles
Through their stylistic elements, buildings frequently reveal much about their history. Coupled with an understanding of construction techniques and research into written and pictorial sources, stylistic evidence can aid the property owner in making decisions about re­ habilitation. Several books and pamphlets to aid laymen in identifying American architectural styles are available (see below). Knowing about the style of a building will provide clues to its age as well as aid in comparisons with other buildings.

It is important to remember, however, that few buildings are textbook examples of a style. Many buildings defy stylistic categorization. Some exhibit features of several styles; others are simple, unpretentious designs lacking the embellishments which help to distinguish styles. But each building stands as evidence of the cultural forces over the years which shaped its present appearance.

This article was prepared by T. Robins Brown, architec­tural history and historic preservation consultant, 12 First Ave., West Nyack, N.Y. 10960.

Suggestions for Further Reading

• American Architecture Since 1780: A Guide to Styles. Marcus Whiffen (313 pp., illus., 1969). $9.95, postpaid, hard cover. Available from The MIT Press, Massachu­setts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. 02142.
• The History of a House: How to Trace it. Linda Ells­ worth (8 pp., illus., 1976). $.50, postpaid, soft cover. Available from American Association for State and Local History, 1400 Eighth Ave., South, Nashville, Tenn. 37203.
• How to Date a House (4 pp., illus., 1976). $.50, post­ paid, soft cover. Available from The Old-House Journal, 199 Berkeley Pl., Brooklyn, N.Y. 11217.
• How to Date a House. David M. Hart (21 pp., illus., 1975). $1.50, postpaid, soft cover. Available from Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, 141 Cambridge St., Boston, Mass. 02114.
• Identifying American Architecture. John J. – G. Blu­menson (118 pp., illus., 1977). $6.75, postpaid, soft cover. Available from American Association for State and Local History, 1400 Eighth Ave., South, Nashville, Tenn. 37203.

City and county directories can provide valuable infor­mation on architects, builders, and contractors. These advertisements from various mid to late 19th century editions of the Troy, New York, Directory demonstrate the range of information available.

Physical Investigation

A thorough knowledge of the physical condition of a building should precede its purchase or rehabilitation. Rehabilitating an old building can be a rewarding experi­ence, if unanticipated problems do not arise. When in­vestigating a building, a property owner should consider the services of a building inspector, architect, or engineer experienced in preservation. A professional can be espe­cially useful to his client in his ability to set priorities for repairs.

Inspection is usually a dirty job; dress accordingly. Basic tools are a flashlight, plumb bob, sharp probe (awl or icepick), hammer, pen knife, screwdriver, pencils, and paper. Start with an examination of the exterior; then proceed from basement to attic on the interior. Through­ out the inspection remember that the ultimate cause of most decay in buildings is moisture.

Exterior Walls
On masonry walls, check first for general plumbness; look for bulges or major vertical or diagonal cracking. Cracks or leaning may not be important if they are no longer active conditions; however, if they appear severe, the opinion of a professional should be sought. Check also the tops of parapet walls, and look out the win­dows for any cracks in lintels; separation between the window frame and masonry opening is an ideal place for decay to start. Inspect mortar; old deteriorated mortar must be replaced with compatible new mortar mixes.

Rising damp, a result of poor soil drainage, can be a serious problem in masonry walls and foundations. Common signs of this problem are spalling and deposits of white salts — efflorescence — on the wall surface, near the ground. If the problem is extensive, a new drainage system may be required. Efflorescence may also occur near leaking gutters.

Wood Decay
Woodwork should be carefully checked for fungal decay, caused by moisture and evidenced by paint failure, water stains, rust stains around nails, surface mold, raised nails which may indicate expansion and contraction of wood, or pale or brownish discolorations especially when covered with fine black lines. In advanced states of decay, spongy growths will appear on the surface and the wood may be severely cracked and reduced in sec­tion. Areas especially susceptible to fungal decay are sills and window sash, eaves and soffits, areas at corners and around windows where the end grain of the wood is exposed, and areas where roof runoff splashes. Porches, because of their constant exposure, are particularly sus­ceptible to decay.

Check for signs of termite and beetle infestation. In­fested wood may show few signs of decay, since the exterior surface is generally left undisturbed. Probe wood with a pen knife. Look for termite shelter tubes, frass or wood dust, and flight holes. Termite attack may be inactive, but if any evidence exists, an expert should be called in.

Foundations and Basements
Check the entire perimeter of the foundation, probing sill and joint ends. Damp crawl spaces or floor joints and sills laid directly on grade should be immediately suspect. Check the joists, floor boards, and wooden members for signs of insect attack. Cracks in the foun­dation should be repaired to help prevent the entrance of termites. Compare the level of the ground to the level of the floor joists. Soil above the bottom of the joists makes it easier for moisture to enter the founda­tion and cause rot. Tree roots are a common cause of unequal settlement in foundations. Bear in mind that roots can extend to one to one and one-half times the height of the tree. If basement walls have numerous or severe settlement cracks, there may be structural prob­lems, and an engineer should be consulted.

Interior Spaces
Check each room systematically, one wall at a time. Any dampness in interior walls should be investigated as to the cause and correlated with the exterior inspection. If the plaster is wet and the problem appears long stand­ing, the lath should be checked for fungal decay. Major cracks at corners should be compared with movements of exterior walls. Plaster which yields to pressure may indicate separation of the key connecting plaster and lath and will require removal and re-plastering.

Door frames which are not square and floors which slope or have separated from the baseboard may be evidence of settlement problems. Buckled flooring may indicate condensation problems above wet crawl spaces or base­ments. A second layer of flooring may hide decay in the first layer. Check around plumbing and heating fixtures for signs of decay in floors and walls. Windows should be examined for ease of operation and water damage. Staircases may require repair if they are pulled away from the wall, show gaps between treads and risers, or creak.

In the attic or top floor rooms, check upper walls for moisture. The end of ceiling joists and the underside of roof boards should be checked for leaks and decay.

Roofs
Check particularly where vertical surfaces, such as chim­neys, dormers, and parapet walls, break through the roof surface. Large areas of tar on the flashing are indicative of past problems which have not been satisfactorily repaired.

Lumps, bubbles, and cracking in asphalt-covered flat roofs are signs of trouble, as are warped wooden shingles and asphalt shingles which are broken or thin at the edges. Broken or missing slate will require repair, al­ though the failure may be caused only by rusted nails; serious consideration should be given to reusing this excellent and decorative material.

Mechanical Systems
Plumbing, wiring, and heating systems should be in­spected; the services of a professional are usually required. In many old buildings existing mechanical sys­tems are inadequate and perhaps dangerous.

This article was prepared by Robert N. Pierpont, a building conservation and materials consultant with the Preservation/Design Group, 388 Broadway, Albany, N. Y. 12207.

Suggestions for Further Reading

• The Eight Most Common Mistakes in Restoring Historic0 Houses. Morgan W. Phillips (10 pp., illus., 1975). $1.00, postpaid, soft cover. Available from Society for the
• Guidelines for Rehabilitating Old Buildings (22 pp., 1977). No charge, soft cover. Available from Technical Preservation Services, Heritage Conservation and Recrea­tion Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washing­ton, D.C. 20240.
• Inspection Checklist for Vintage Houses (4 pp., illus., 1977). $.50, postpaid, soft cover. Available from The Old-House Journal, 199 Berkeley Pl., Brooklyn, N.Y.
• Subterranean Termites: Their Prevention and Control in Buildings. H.R. Johnston (30 pp., illus., 1975). $.55, postpaid, soft cover. Available from U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

Emergency Repairs and Stabilization

The principle behind all emergency structural repairs or stabilization projects is the replacement of a lost force which is essential to the structural stability of the build­ing. Consequently, all repairs of this nature must be based on an understanding of the inert forces within buildings.

Although some structural problems may be obvious, many others are discovered only as a result of a detailed inspection of a building, which should be completed prior to any purchase or rehabilitation.
Although the immediate problem is to stabilize the structure, any long term solution must deal with the actual cause of the problem. Masking the problem only aggravates it and makes the ultimate repair more costly. Any substantial or unusual problem will require the opinion of an architect or engineer who is experi­enced in preservation.

Weather Protection – The First Step
The first priority is to stop weather penetration. Tem­porary measures may include directing gutter discharge away from the building, patching holes in the roof, in­ stalling a temporary roof of building paper, removing trash and excess weight from damaged areas, installing plywood or polyethylene over door and window open­ings, and turning the water off in case of broken pipes. Such measures may save the building until permanent repairs can be made, but they should be executed in such a way that they are not irreversible and will not hinder future, permanent repairs. Special care should be taken not to damage or discard any architectural elements needed for restoration. Photographs should precede any work.

Substituting Modern Materials
Repairs which are not visible or are in unobtrusive loca­tions should be carried out with modern materials which handle stress better than the original material, such as the use of a steel I-beam to replace a collapsed wooden beam. Preservation technology is constantly adapting new and untraditional materials for repairing historic fabric, such as the use of epoxy resins to consolidate decayed wood.

Stabilizing Brick and Stone Walls
In most old buildings the structural use of brick and stone is generally limited to perimeter walls and interior bearing walls which support wooden floor joists, ceiling joists, and roof rafters. Uneven ground settlement, an undersized foundation, or the horizontal thrust of roof rafters may cause cracking or leaning of the masonry walls.

The lime-base mortar usually used in old houses is not as rigid as modern cements, and the walls can accommodate small movements in the foundation without causing problems. For this reason, the characteristic waviness of brick courses in old buildings should not be of great concern. However, if soil movements result in a more severe and uneven settlement of the foundation, diag­onal cracks may be created where a portion of the wall has sunk. Down leader discharge and inadequate dis­ charge near a foundation are a major cause of uneven settlement. If the cause of the problem can, or has been, corrected and the settlement arrested, the crack may not be serious.

Leaning walls require lateral restraint either by an in­terior concrete buttress or with iron rods attached to plates on the outside of the wall and tied to a plate on the opposite wall. If a wall requires temporary bracing before it can be permanently repaired, the braces must be strong enough to transfer the lateral force and must rest on a foundation strong enough to support the weight of this force. If the leaning is a result of under­ sized foundations, the wall must be temporarily under­ pinned while a larger footing is poured. Lime mortar walls will accommodate some leaning through slow movement. However, if the wall’s center of gravity leans beyond the middle third of the wall, then it is unstable and a professional should be consulted.

Settlement at Door and Windows
The problem of settlement is much more critical when it causes window or door arches or lintels to crack. The weight above the windows and doors must be carried by the masonry between these openings, and cracking will cause uneven weight distribution and further structural problems. These openings must be shored up until new support can be established to prevent collapse of the masonry.

If a wooden lintel over an opening is badly decayed and must be removed, the masonry above must be supported by beams from columns resting on firm supports, both inside and outside the building. The lintel may also be removed and replaced in small sections. In most cases, the stabilization of damaged masonry walls should be designed by an engineer.

Stabilizing Frame Structures
Frame structures are more flexible than masonry struc­tures; however, because the frame is interconnected at many points, any rapid jacking at one point may break the connections elsewhere. If one component has failed and jacking of the frame is necessary, it should be car­ried out over a long period of time; the member should be disconnected from the other framing members and re-joined when it has been jacked into place.

Broken mortise-and-tenon joints can be repaired using a steel angle which is bolted to the vertical post and the horizontal girder. If a frame wall is leaning outward due to the thrust of the roof rafters, a restraining force such as new wooden collar beams or steel rods between the rafters is required. Large, structural wooden members, such as sills and corner posts which have been partially destroyed are best repaired using new wooden members. But broken connections in roof rafters or sagging trusses can be repaired using plywood or metal gusset plates which are bolted or nailed to the old members. Large spans of floor joists may be supported by a steel beam at midspan.

Floor Framing
Problems commonly associated with floor framing are rotting caused by fungus and infestation by termites and beetles. Areas most susceptible to these problems are wooden sills and floor joists near the ground. If decay occurs in the ends of the joists which rest in the walls, the bearing capacity is reduced and the floor will sag or collapse. A temporary solution is to install a new sill supported by vertical steel pipe columns, but eventually the bearing must be reinstated.

Moisture problems may result from inadequate drainage or from a grade level which is too high at the foundation. Trapped moisture will rise up through a foundation by capillary action (rising damp) and will be absorbed by the wooden floor framing. Removing the source of the moisture will generally prevent further decay of the wood, but it is advisable to treat the infected area with a fungicide. Complete replacement of the floor joist is seldom necessary, unless decay is advanced over a large area. New scabs (boards attached to the joist) can be extended from the sill and bolted to sound wood, thus re-establishing the joist’s bearing capacity. Another method is to insert a steel tee section in the joist pockets, with the web inserted into a groove in the joists and bolted to sound wood.

When making any emergency and structural repairs it is important to remember that health and safety are the major considerations. Repair materials and methods should be chosen wisely and carefully. What at the outset of a preservation project may seem like a large investment may ultimately be the least expensive and most effective way of solving a problem.

This article was prepared by Robert N. Pierpont, a build­ing conservation and materials consultant with the Pres­ervation/Design Group, 388 Broadway, Albany, N. Y. 12207.

Suggestions for Further Reading

• The Care of Old Buildings Today: A Practical Guide. Donald lnsall (197 pp., illus., 1974). $14.95, postpaid, hard cover. Available from Preservation Bookshop, 740 Jackson Pl., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006.
• How to Buy and Fix Up an Old House (125 pp., illus., 1976). $8.95, postpaid, soft cover. Available from Home-Tech Publications, 7315 Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20014.

Exterior Woodwork

If properly cared for, wood will last for centuries. Wooden structures decay only because they have not received proper maintenance.

It is always better to maintain and repair existing exter­ior wood than to resort to Band-Aid methods such as overlaying synthetic siding materials with aluminum or vinyl. The application of these foreign materials invari­ably requires the removal of some wooden trim and re­sults in the loss of architectural character. Synthetic siding may also mask serious rot which may go unde­tected until it is too late for repairs.

Old houses with exteriors that have been defaced by improper rehabilitation usually suffer a long-term loss of market value, for today’s sophisticated homebuyers are seeking — and paying for — houses that retain their original architectural details.

Water vs. Wood
Proper care of exterior wood can be summed up in three words: keep it dry. The overwhelming damage to exterior wood is caused by rot. Rot-causing fungi need moisture to grow. Wood that has been kept totally free from water will be totally free from rot.

Four allies can be enlisted in the battle to keep water out of exterior wood: wood preservatives, paint and other exterior finishes, putty, and caulk. Wood that is protected by a properly applied continuous paint film, unbroken by holes and cracks, will remain dry and free from rot. A good paint job depends on three basic factors: eliminating all sources of penetrating moisture, properly preparing surfaces prior to painting, and selecting the proper paint.

Paint selection is the least important of the three. Just about any good quality paint, either oil-based or latex, will give satisfactory results, provided the other two elements in a good paint job are given proper attention. As a general rule, it is best to use the same type of paint as was used on the house the last time it was painted. If a primer is used, it should be the one formulated by the manufacturer to be compatible with the finish coat. Most problems that people blame on the paint are actu­ally caused by other factors such as moisture getting behind the paint film or faulty preparation.

Thwarting Moisture
Moisture can enter from the outside through faulty flashing, inadequate caulking, or leaking gutters. Moisture can also originate inside a house from high­ humidity areas such as bathrooms, kitchens, and laundry rooms.

To thwart exterior moisture, seal all cracks with caulk and fill holes with putty. Replace defective shingles and repair faulty flashing with flashing cement. Leaking gutters should be replaced or repaired with fiberglass and epoxy resin. Use only good quality latex or butyl caulks; these cost quite a bit more than oil-based caulks, but will last a lot longer. Below is a basic caulking checklist:

• between siding and drip caps on windows and doors
• between siding and window sills
• between siding and frames of doors and windows
• between siding and corner boards
• at joints between masonry and woodwork
• between siding and decorative molding
• around columns, capitals, and gingerbread
• between porches, masonry steps, and house foundation

Dealing with moisture from inside the house is more complex, but better ventilation is usually the key. In bathrooms, for example, leaking tile on shower stall walls may have to be regrouted or replaced. Exhaust fans may be needed to give water vapor a direct path to the outside. Washers and dryers generate a large amount of water vapor inside the house; dryers should be prop­erly vented to the outside.

Preparing Exterior Surfaces
All loose paint must be scraped off the walls. If there has been excessive chalking of the old paint, or if the paint is dirty, the walls should be washed with a deter­gent solution and a bristle brush. Rinse with a garden hose, and allow the wood to dry thoroughly before painting.

Any rotting boards and pieces of trim should be re­placed. Replacement pieces should be treated with wood preservative and with a primer on all sides.

Protected areas under soffits, cornices, etc., create special problems. These areas accumulate more dirt and grime because unlike the walls, they do not receive the normal washing action of rain. Applying paint on top of the grime can lead to premature peeling. All loose material under soffits should be scraped off, and if there appears to be any surface dirt, it too should be washed off with a stiff bristle brush and a solution of household detergent.

Insulation and Moisture
The rush to blow insulation into the walls of old build­ings is creating a host of new problems with wood and paint. Because there is not a proper vapor barrier in out­ side wood frame walls, it is quite possible for moisture to condense on the insulation during the winter. At best, this moisture condensation will cause excessive paint peeling. At worst, it will cause the sills to rot out.

If peeling increases after wall insulation has been in­ stalled, wall vents should be installed as indicated in the accompanying drawing. It is better yet not to install side wall insulation until every other energy-saving idea has been tried. Quite often, the problems caused by side wall insulation in old houses outweigh the benefits.

Keep your exterior woodwork well protected. The house will be the better for it and so will your property value!

This article was prepared by Clem Labine, editor and publisher of The Old-House Journal, a monthly maga­zine on restoration and maintenance for the antique house, 199 Berkeley Pl., Brooklyn, N. Y. 11217.

Suggestions for Further Reading
Condensation Problems in Your House: Prevention and Solution. L.O. Anderson and G.E. Sherwood (39 pp., illus., 1974). $.75, postpaid, soft cover. Available from U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Order by title and stock number 0100-03318.

Principles for Protecting Wood Buildings from Decay. T.C. Sheffer and A.F. Verrall (57 pp., illus., 1973). $1.25, postpaid, soft cover. Available from U.S. Govern­ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20240. Order by title and stock number 0101-00362.

Wood Siding: Installing, Finishing, Maintaining. (13 pp., illus., 1973). $.35, postpaid, soft cover. Available from U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 20402. Order by title and stock number 0100-02680.

Masonry

Water causes nearly all problems associated with old masonry buildings. Once saturated, stone and brick decay, either through frost damage or salt crystallization. Even­ tually, neglected masonry will scale, crumble, or disinte­ grate. Adequate protection from the damaging effects of moisture should be the property owner’s highest maintenance priority.

Construction
Brick walls are constructed of several thicknesses of brick units, which are bonded in a variety of patterns, as illustrated. Early locally-made bricks vary greatly in size and quality, but by the late 19th century American brick-making was a standardized process.

Stone construction in the 18th and early 19th centuries utilized irregularly-hewn rubble or finished blocks of stone as structural units. Thin slabs of stone facing or veneer applied to rubble or brick walls were common by the mid-19th century.

Repointing
Repointing, the process of raking out deteriorated mor­ tar by hand and replacing it with fresh mortar, is one of the most usual repairs to a masonry building. New mortar should match the original in strength, hardness, pro­file and color.

A frequent mistake in repointing old buildings is the in­ discriminate use of hard mortars containing Portland cement. Portland cement, commonly in use today, did not become popular until the 1880’s. Previously, mor­tars contained lime or natural cement, a form of hy­draulic lime. These soft mortars provided a relatively elastic cushion between masonry units; this flexibility is lost when joints are repainted with a high proportion of Portland cement.

As a guide to its replacement, the profile of an existing mortar joint should be studied before it is raked out. Although a concave mortar joint is considered the most weathertight, the mortar may instead have been trowelled flush with the masonry surface, recessed in a variety of ways, or raised. Early 19th century mortars were usually light in color; darker mortars became popular later in the century.

Replacement and Repair
When brick is severely deteriorated, it should be replaced, preferably with old matching bricks salvaged from some other part of the building. If this is not possible, other old bricks of the same color and dimensions should be sought. Contemporary handmade bricks may be avail­ able in the suitable color and texture. Hard modern bricks should not be used as replacements in historic brick buildings.

In New York State deteriorated brownstone is a com­mon problem. Throughout the mid-19th century, brownstone was frequently face-bedded on buildings. A face-bedded stone scales in layers because it was placed on end with its natural bedding planes parallel to the face of the wall.

Because it is no longer quarried today, brownstone is difficult to replace. It is usually more practical to re­ construct the stone with a mortar of cement and crushed stone or sand — a process known as plastic repair. This process involves cutting back all decayed stone to a sound surface and building up the area with a series of applica­tions of the mortar.

Masonry stoops are particularly susceptible to decay. Commercial salts dumped on icy steps during winter have a drastic, corrosive effect. Soluble salts are carried with water into the pore network of the stone or brick where they form crystals; because salts have a larger volume when crystallized, their expansion damages the internal structure of the masonry and white salt deposits (efflorescence) form on the surface.

Splitting caused by rusting of embedded ironwork is frequently a problem with railings set into stone steps. As the iron rusts, its volume increases, exerting pressure on the hole in which the railing was fitted and causing the stone to crack. The rusted ends of the railing must be thoroughly cleaned and reset in lead or hydraulic cement.

Cleaning and Painting Masonry
A variety of cleaning techniques are available. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. One method to avoid for old masonry is sandblasting. Under the strenu­ous bombardment of abrasives, soft stones will be eroded and pockmarked, and polished stones will be dulled and scarred. Brick is even more vulnerable than stone to sandblasting. The fired outer surface of the brick is pulverized in the sandblasting process, exposing the soft, porous interior. Once blasted, the bricks are more vulnerable to atmospheric attack, water penetra­tion, and discoloration. Sealant coats are only a tem­porary remedy to the after-effects of sandblasting.

Historically, many brick buildings were painted and need paint as a protection against moisture. If paint must be removed, it should be done chemically with a paint re­ mover designed for use with masonry. A test patch should be made first to ensure that the product is suit­ able for the particular paint and masonry conditions of the building. The oldest and still the most versatile method of cleaning stone is with water and bristle brushes. Chemical cleaning is also an option. Acidic cleaners are used on granite and some sandstones, but will erode limestone, marble, or brick. Alkaline cleaners are used for these acid-sensitive materials. Hydrochloric (muriatic) acid should not be used on stone or brick buildings.

This article was prepared by Cornelia Brooke Gilder, an architectural historian and building materials consultant, Applebrooke, Tyringham, Mass. 01263.

Suggestions for Further Reading

• The Cleaning and Waterproof Coating of Masonry Build­ings, Preservation Brief #1. Robert C. Mack (4 pp., illus., 1977). No charge, soft cover. Available from Technical Preservation Services, Heritage Conservation and Recrea­tion Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washing­ ton, D.C. 20240.
• Introduction to Early American Masonry. Harley J. McKee (92 pp., illus., 1973). $5.00, postpaid, soft cover. Available from Preservation Bookshop, 740 Jackson Pi., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006.
• Property Owner’s Guide to the Maintenance and Repair of Stone Buildings. Cornelia Brooke Gilder (10 pp., illus., 1977). $1.25, postpaid, soft cover. Available from Preservation League, 13 Northern Blvd., Albany, N.Y. 12210.
• Repainting Mortar Joints in Historic Brick Buildings, Preservation Brief #2. Robert C. Mack (8 pp., illus., 1976). No charge, soft cover. Available from Techni­cal Preservation Services, Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. 20240.

The two most common bricklaying patterns in the 18th and early 19th centuries were English bond (alternating rows of headers and stretchers) and Flemish bond (alter­nating headers and stretchers). Later in the 19th cen­tury, common bond (one row of headers to every fifth, sixth, or seventh row of stretchers) became popular, along with running bond (all stretchers), which is still popular.

Splitting caused by rusting of embedded ironwork is fre­quently a problem with railings set into stone steps. As the iron rusts, its volume increases, exerting pressure on the hole in which the baluster was fitted and causing the stone to crack and break off.

Metal Building Parts

As the 19th century unfolded, new technology made possible the production of cast iron and sheet metal cheaply and in large quantities. Prefabricated iron and sheet metal building parts were among the important new products that were made. Their popularity is still evident in buildings across the country.

Cast Iron Storefronts
The cast iron storefront quickly emerged as a favorite prefab building element. Unlike earlier masonry shop­ fronts with thick piers and small multi-paned windows, the cast iron front was composed of slender iron columns separating large plate glass display windows. Today cast iron storefronts are much admired. Yet an owner might have one and not know it, for in the last 30 years many have been covered over with modern materials. Many lucky merchants have rediscovered beautiful iron store­ fronts by removing inappropriate siding and obtrusive signs.

Repainting for Protection
The key to proper maintenance of an iron storefront can be stated in four words: keep it properly painted. The primary purpose of painting is to protect the iron from moisture and its consequences – rust. Salt water from sea spray or from salted winter sidewalks and streets is an even worse enemy, because it accelerates the rusting process.

Repainting the storefront is usually sufficient. The first step is the clean the iron surface, removing all rust, grime, and loose scaling paint. A motorized or man

coat of rust retarding primer, such as red lead or zinc chromate; some experts recommend two coats of primer, especially over bare metal or thin spots in the old paint. Joints and bolt holes, which hold moisture, must be caulked, preferably after applying the first coat of primer. After that, one generous coat of exterior enamel should be applied. Paint chemists regard the main purpose of the enamel to be the protection and sealing of the primer, and emphasize the importance of selecting a primer and enamel made by the same manu­facturer so that they will be chemically compatible.al rotary wire brush, a scraper, and heavy sandpaper are the tools needed. Ornate storefronts with fluted columns and leafy capitals will challenge the patience of the painter, who should be encouraged to match his skills against the remarkable craftsmanship of the iron founders a century ago.

Painting is best done on dry days, avoiding hot, direct sunlight. Once the surface has been cleaned, it should be degreased with alcohol and then immediately given a coat of rust retarding primer, such as red lead or zinc chromate; some experts recommend two coats of primer, especially over bare metal or thin spots in the old paint. Joints and bolt holes, which hold moisture, must be caulked, preferably after applying the first coat of primer. After that, one generous coat of exterior enamel should be applied. Paint chemists regard the main purpose of the enamel to be the protection and sealing of the primer, and emphasize the importance of selecting a primer and enamel made by the same manufacturer so that they will be chemically compatible.

Oil-based (rather than latex) enamel is recommended. Spray painting is easier but brushing creates a better bond between paint and metal, thereby reducing the chances of peeling. The color of the finish coat should blend with the rest of the building. Muted masonry or earth colors are historically appropriate since iron fronts were often intended to imitate stone. Light colors en­hance the details.

Stripping Down to “Bright” Metal

Some storefronts have become so caked with paint that they must be stripped down to the “bright” metal, by means of chemical paint removers, sandblasting, or burning. Sandblasting iron must be done by a professional and with great care, since adjoining glass, stone, or brick can very easily be damaged. (Sandblasting is not recommended for any type of masonry, because it pits the brick surface and removes the soft mortar, thereby accelerating deterioration.) Paint can be burned off using a scraper and an electric hot air gun or an inexpensive propane gas gun. Removing the old paint is a labor of love, for two reasons – because it is a difficult task and because the owner will love how it reveals the original character of the delicate designs of the iron castings.

Metal Facades
Here and there are buildings with upper stories made of cast iron just like the storefront or with upper stories made of stamped sheet metal. Both types of facades must be kept painted and their seams sealed against infiltration of rain and snow. Because the sheet metal is thin, holes and tears can occur. They should be filled with “liquid solder” or material used for auto body repairs. “Plastic Steel B” manufactured by Devcon Corp., Danvers, Massachusetts 01923, is excellent and can be formed into small replacement parts.

Repairing “Tin” Ceilings
“Tin” ceilings contain not an iota of tin, but they are close relatives of sheet metal fronts. Stamped out of sheet steel, they too need anti-rust protection. One coat of enamel will usually suffice, unless there are rusted areas which will need the standard treatment: rust removal, a rust-inhibiting primer, and a final coat of oil-based enamel. Damaged parts of an old metal ceiling can often be patched with new sections. At least two firms still make sheets and borders from the original dies; contact Brainum-Shanker Steel Co., 70-32 83rd Street, Glendale, New York 11227, or A.A. Abington Ceiling Co., 2149 Utica Avenue, Brooklyn, New York, 11234. Simple repairs can be made by the owner, but for large jobs a sheet metal worker should be engaged.

Restoring Ornamental Ironwork

Cast iron fences, balconies, and railings need the same treatment as iron architecture. Rust must be removed, joints caulked, and rust retardant primer applied before repainting. These elaborate old building elements look far better when coats of ancient paint are removed. Chemical stripping is particularly suitable for removing paint from these often elaborate objects when they can be immersed. Burning may also be used. Chipping the paint is dangerous, because a sharp blow can fracture the brittle cast iron.
Damaged or lost sections of a fence or railing can be re­ stored if a typical section is carefully removed and taken to a local foundry as a pattern for recasting. Aluminum castings are often a satisfactory substitute for iron cast­ings; once painted, their appearance will be nearly identical, and they will cost less, will be lighter to handle, and will not rust. Ornamental ironwork should be anchored securely. Loose gates, fencing, iron watchdogs, garden benches, and urns just might end up in a flea market or sold to a scrap yard.
This article was prepared by Margot Gayle, president and founder of the Friends of Cast-Iron Architecture, 44 West 9th Street, New York, N. Y. 10011.

Suggestions for Further Reading

• Cast-Iron Architecture in New York. Margot Gayle and Edmund V. Gillon, Jr. (190 pp., illus., 1974). $6.50, postpaid, soft cover. Available from Dover Publications, 180 Varick St., New York, N.Y. 10014.

Roofing

In old buildings, deterioration problems caused by mois­ture and weather penetration are usually directly related to either the roof or the foundation. As the most ex­ posed element of a building, the roof is critical to the protection of the building, its inhabitants, and its con­ tents from the ravages of sun, rain, snow, wind, and dust. In its design and construction characteristics, the roof is often a major element in a building’s appearance. Per­ haps more than any other component of construction, the roof reflects the special conditions of the time and place of the building’s origin.

Roofs of old buildings present special problems. Flash­ings, gutters, leaders, insulation, vapor barriers, and lightning rods, as well as the roof covering itself, require continual maintenance and periodical replacement on all buildings. In addition, owners of old buildings should ask the following questions regarding roofing:

• can the existing roof be preserved and repaired, or must it be replaced?
• if replacement is necessary, are there less expensive materials and techniques available which will be long­ lasting, as well as aesthetically acceptable?
• can and should such architectural elements as dormers, cupolas, turrets, and cornices be simplified, boxed-in, or removed altogether to facilitate maintenance and reduce construction costs?

If these questions are not properly addressed, excessive maintenance and rehabilitation costs may result, along with damage to the building and its contents. Budgeting constraints often necessitate balancing practicality with aesthetics and historically accurate restoration. However, inappropriate repair techniques can result in the loss of the building’s historical qualities, as well as in major deterioration in the future.

Analysis of Problems
The first step in the repair process is to determine the exact extent and complexity of the problem. If the diagnosis is incorrect, it will be very difficult to carry out the proper repairs. Professional advice from experi­enced preservation architects or roofing contractors is advised at this time to determine exactly what remedial work is required.

Active roof leaks must be sealed immediately to prevent permanent damage to the structure and its contents. Asphalt roof patching compounds can be used for emergency repairs, but they have a very limited life expect­ancy and may hide further leaks.

Repair or Replacement
In many cases it is possible to achieve the objective of a long-lasting roof at moderate cost by repairing the exist­ing roof. Often, only one component of the roofing system of an old building, such as the flashing, has dete­riorated and needs replacement; the rest of the roof sur­ face may well still be sound. Slate and sheet metal roofs, in particular, can last for centuries if properly main­tained.

When determining whether to repair or replace an exist­ing roof, the following items should be considered:

• cost of repair versus replacement cost
• effectiveness of the repairs and their expected longevity
• additional anticipated repairs
• cost of anticipated maintenance of both approaches

Wood Shingle Roofs
In New York State in the 18th and 19th centuries, wood shingles were by far the most common roofing material. A properly installed and maintained wood shingle roof should have a life expectancy of 40 or more years. Wood shingles impregnated with fire-resistant chemicals are now available. When new wood shingle roofs are in­ stalled, smooth, sawn shingles should be used rather than hand-split shakes, which are historically inappropriate as well as difficult to make weathertight because of their uneven surfaces.

Slate Roofs
Generally, slate roofs can be expected to last for a cen­tury or more. The most common sources of failure in slate roofs are the deterioration of metal flashings and the delamination of the slate, especially around the nail holes, which cause the slate to work loose and fall or crumble. In New York State, red, green, or purple slate from Vermont was most commonly used for residential construction. These slates are harder and more durable than grey-black Pennsylvania slate, which is prone to delamination caused by atmospheric pollution. It is usually more economical, in the long run, to keep a sound slate roof in repair by replacing deteriorated flash­ings and missing slate than to replace it with a less per­manent material. However, where the slate themselves are crumbling or delaminating, it usually is not possible to save the roof.

Metal Roofs
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, iron and steel sheets protected by a coating of tin or a combination of tin and lead (terne) were a very popular roofing material. Properly cared for, a tin roof will last almost indefinitely. It should be painted on a regular basis with “tinner’s red” paint, which will insulate and protect the metal from the weather. However, if not maintained, a tin roof will fail quickly, most commonly from the breakdown of the tin coating, which exposes the iron to the elements and causes rust. If the rusting is not checked, water will soon freely penetrate the roof coating. Under no circumstances should a sheet iron or steel roof be painted with bituminous or asphaltic coatings, which, because of their chemical composition, can accelerate the deterioration of the metal.

Another problem to avoid is the juxtaposition of certain dissimilar metals, such as tin plate and copper. Different metals will react chemically with each other, resulting in galvanic corrosion with one of the metals eventually be­ coming consumed by the other. Galvanic corrosion, also known as electrolysis, can also occur when nails and sheet roofing of dissimilar metals are in contact with one another.

Substitute Materials
If it is determined that the historic roofing must be re­ placed and if it is too expensive to use the same material, the alternative material should be selected very carefully. If the roof is visible, the new material should not only be durable and serviceable, but also match the historic roofing in texture, scale, and color.

Maintenance
A careful maintenance program is essential to the long, trouble-free life of the roof. Gutters and downspouts should be kept free of leaves and other debris. The roof itself should be carefully inspected twice a year for signs of wear and other defects, such as broken solder joints and missing shingles. Where accessible, the under­ side of the roof should be inspected after heavy rainstorms for signs of leaks.
This article was prepared for the Preservation League of New York State by John G. Waite, a partner in the Pres­ervation/Design Group, which specializes in the adaptive use and restoration of old buildings, 388 Broadway, Albany, N. Y. 12207.

Suggestions for Further Reading

• “Roofing for Early America.” Diana S. Waite (pp. 135- 149, illus.) in Building Early America, Charles E. Peter­ son, ed. (387 pp., illus., 1976). $9.95, postpaid, soft cover. Available from Carpenters’ Company, 320 Chest­ nut St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19106.
• Roofing for Historic Buildings, Preservation Brief #4. Sarah M. Sweetser (8 pp., illus., 1978). No charge, soft cover. Available from Technical Preservation Services, Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service, U.S. De­partment of the Interior, Washington, D.C. 20240.

Painting

Until the introduction of alkyd resins to the paint indus­try in the 1930’s, paints most commonly used on Ameri­can buildings were either oil-base or water-base. Historic oil-base paints were composed of a non-volatile oil and a thinner together known as the vehicle, and various pig­ments, usually white lead and additional hiding and coloring pigments. The base of the vehicle was most often linseed oil, but sometimes fish, nut, or tung oil was used. Many natural and manufactured pigments were available to the painter in 18th and 19th century America and his palette was often brighter than sus­pected today.

Historically two basic types of water-base paints were used. Whitewash, the most common, was composed of water, slaked lime, and possibly small amounts of salt or tallow, which formed a sort of plaster to which shading pigments were often added. When a protein glue, gela­tine, or gum was added to whitewash, or when a paint was principally bound by glue or gelatinous material, it was known as distemper paint. Distemper paints were able to hold darker pigments. Calcimine is a type of dis­ temper paint which takes its name from the earthen pigments which were burnt or calcined, then finely ground and added to the paint. Casein paint is another type of distemper paint which is bound by curdled or skim milk.

Colors and Special Finishes
When researching the paint history of a structure, one should always consider the stylistic trends as well as the technological advances in paint manufacture that occur­ red throughout a building’s life. Paint application methods, the recommendations of contemporary taste­ makers, the dates different pigments were introduced, and the aging characteristics of paint are important fac­ tors in accurate paint restoration.

Research and physical investigation into paint should consider the possibility that polychromy was used. Both interior and exterior architectural details were often high­ lighted with different colors of paint. Buildings constructed or redecorated during the latter half of the 19th century will often reveal striking combinations of colors, while earlier color schemes often featured subtly shaded hues of the same color. Interiors should also be checked for decorative wall painting and stenciling.

Graining and marbling were common practices through­ out the 19th century. Graining was usually used to dis­ guise domestic American woods as costly, imported hardwoods, such as mahogany. However, it is also not unusual to find a base surface of oak or walnut finished with a grainer’s imitation of the same wood. Marbling -­ painting in imitation of expensive, polished stone — was used in America from at least the early years of the 18th century. Mantels and paneled mantel walls with definite architectonic features very often were marbled. In many formal houses the walls of entire rooms — particularly entrance halls — were painted and scored in imitation of marble blocks.

Particularly fashionable during the first half of the 19th century, sanding — sand applied to tacky paint — was used as a finish on wooden elements of masonry build­ings, such as a wooden cornice on a brownstone-faced building, in order that the entire building would appear to be stone. Sand was also mixed with paint used on buildings constructed entirely of wood in order to imi­tate stone or to soften the normal glare of paint and to prolong paint life. Metal building parts were often sanded.

Physical Investigation of Paint Colors
Unless a building has been severely damaged or altered, it is usually possible to find enough evidence to recon­ struct the paint history of the building. Determining the original and subsequent paint colors actually used on a building is the most useful guide to repainting and assur­ ing the continued visual integrity of the building.

Tools needed for paint sampling are a surgical scalpel or an X-acto knife, portable lights, and a magnifying glass. The scalpel is used to expose carefully all successive layers of paint in as small an area as possible down to the substrate, the original unfinished surface. The layers are then examined with the help of the magnifying glass and the light. Another technique for initial paint investiga­tion involves the use of the same tools with the addition of fine grit sandpapers and lubricating oils. The knife is used to make a small (½”) gouge in the surface to be sampled. The cut is sanded in a circular motion and kept workable by the oil to reveal a polished dish of component layers of paint from the surface to the sub­strate. Paint layers exposed in this manner are easily enumerated.

In order to determine the original and subsequent color schemes, the property owner should begin by taking as many inconspicuous paint samples as possible of the sur­ faces to be repainted in a room or on a building. By comparing the layers and colors in samples taken in the same space, the painting sequence of the space can be determined.

Once the color scheme is decided upon, the property owner must relate the old colors to paint colors available on the current market. Through the use of solvents it is possible to obtain a fairly accurate indication of a color by exposing a larger area of the desired color, measuring at least two inches square. The exposed square can then be matched in place with commercial paint chips. Yel­ lowing, blanching and fading of the oil as well as pig­ment discoloration should be taken into account. Under certain circumstances, a property owner may want to contact a professional restoration consultant about more sophisticated systems for matching samples with modern paint colors.

Preservation and Maintenance of Historic Paints
Proper cleaning and maintenance of painted surfaces will aid their preservation and lessen the need for continual, costly repainting and the consequent undesirable build-up of paint layers. The choice of the proper cleaning agent will depend upon the type of paint and the surface on which it is found. Much routine cleaning can be accomplished by dusting and vacuuming. Some surfaces, such as whitewash and certain distemper paints, cannot be wet washed; they were, and still must be, removed and reapplied when too dirty or worn. Modern flat emulsion paints, such as latex, have also proved difficult to clean. Paint stripping and scraping in historic buildings should be undertaken only where successive paint layers have built up to an inflexible thickness and are peeling and cracking or where fine architectural detail has been ob­scured by paint film.

Choosing the Proper Paint for an Old Building

Once the colors are chosen, it is very important to con­sider the type of paint to be used. Among properties of historic paints which should be emulated when they are reproduced are ropiness, or texture; color depth, which can be achieved by glazes; and sheen.

The two basic types of modern paint are latex and oil­ base or alkyd paints. Property owners should be aware that all types of paints have desirable and undesirable qualities depending upon their intended use and should be very careful about the situations and conditions in which they intend to use different types of paint.

Traditionally oil-base paints were used on the exteriors of buildings and many property owners continue this tradition. However, latex paints have proven very suc­cessful for exterior use. In particular, masonry acrylic/latex has proven a very suitable finish for exterior masonry.

On interiors it is usually best to apply latex in rooms and on surfaces which receive the least wear. On surfaces such as woodwork which receive heavy wear or require continual cleaning oil-base or alkyd paints are best.

A key to successful painting is always proper surface preparation, and this is particularly important with older buildings which may contain many deteriorated surface areas. Paint applied over deteriorated plaster and wood, loose paint, rusting metal, and damaged masonry will only aggravate already serious conditions and undermine

This article was prepared by Frederick D. Cawley, assist­ant director of the Preservation League of New York State.

Suggestions for Further Reading

• Paint Color Research and Restoration, Technical Leaflet Penelope H. Batcheler (4 pp., illus., 1968). $.50, postpaid, soft cover. Available from American Associa­tion for State and Local History, 1400 Eighth Ave., South, Nashville, Tenn. 37203.
• Property Owner’s Guide to Paint Restoration and Preservation. Frederick D. Cawley (8 pp., illus., 1978). $1.00, postpaid, soft cover. Available from Preservation League, 13 Northern Blvd., Albany, N.Y. 12210.

Floor Coverings

The finish and covering of floors contribute greatly to a room’s appearance. Today, owners of historic properties may select from many modern floor materials, or they may choose materials that replicate those used in earlier decades. This article is intended to guide those owners who wish to restore the appearance of 19th century floors.

Types of Finishes
Many home owners may be surprised to learn that few old houses had finished wood floors prior to the 1930’s, when power sanding machinery first became available. Some pretentious houses constructed after 1875 had hardwood or parquet floors, but most continued to be built with floors of softwood, which, because it marred easily, could not withstand much traffic without fre­quent hand scraping and sanding. For most owners the cost of refinishing precluded the exposure of expanses of softwood flooring, and they followed the dictates of fashion, which called for floors to be completely covered. The most commonly used coverings were wall-to-wall carpeting, grass matting, floorcloths, and linoleum.

Floorcloths and Linoleum
Floorcloths are a type of oilcloth which preceded and somewhat resembled linoleum. They were used in American homes throughout the 18th and 19th cen­turies. Floorcloths consist of canvas which has been painted and pumiced and repainted numerous times to achieve a smooth, waterproof, durable surface. The final coat of paint was usually block printed in a geometric pattern to resemble a tiled or paved floor. Initially the canvas was manufactured from domestic flax but by the mid-19th century imported jute was used. Increasingly wider canvas was woven until by the 1840’s the standard width was eight yards. Huge pieces of canvas were stretched upon a frame, which was sometimes as long as the height of a four story loft building, and linseed oil was applied to the suspended canvas. Until the advent of central heating in the mid-19th century, floorcloths were manufactured only during the summer months, since the oils were too flammable to be used within an enclosed building containing open fires.

Before 1860, floorcloths and other early types of what is today called Linoleum were used in high traffic areas such as halls and entry ways of better houses. Floorcloths remained a relatively expensive covering until the last quarter of the 19th century when the manufacturing process had become highly mechanized. Only a few floorcloths and linoleums are available today in 19th century patterns.

Carpets
Several types of carpets were available during the 19th century. All except ingrain were normally woven in 27 inch strips, sewn together, and laid wall-to-wall. Not until the late 19th century was it common to lay a single carpet or rug in the middle of a floor with finished wood exposed at its perimeter.

One of the most common types of carpeting was called ingrain. Ingrain was a flat weave, double or triple ply, blanket-type carpet, 36 inches wide. The design was woven into the fabric and was reversible. Ingrain carpet­ing was made almost everywhere in the United States since it could be, and frequently was, woven on a home loom like that used for weaving coverlets. The design of ingrain carpets paralleled other furnishings and progressed from geometric patterns in the 18th century to in­creasingly stylized floral designs by the last quarter of the 19th century. Prices were comparatively reasonable throughout the 19th century.

Brussels carpets, which had a low loop pile, were popular during both the 18th and 19th centuries. All but the cheapest grades had better wearing qualities than ingrain. Body Brussels had a strand of each of two to five (or more rarely, six, seven, or eight) colors of yarn running the length of each row and was a desirable floor cover. Less sturdy and less expensive was tapestry Brussels, which had an elongated design printed on only one strand of yarn.

Other types of carpet frequently encountered in the 19th century were: Venetian, a plain-weave, multi­ colored, striped carpet frequently used in halls and on stairs; Wilton, a carpet similar in construction to Brussels but with cut loops to produce a velvety texture; Che­nille, a type of carpet with a tufted pile. Chenilles, which are no longer available, were by far the most luxurious. Both Brussels and ingrain carpets are available today in reproduction patterns. However, reproduction carpets are relatively expensive and currently are available only on a custom-made basis through architects or interior designers.

Mattings
Grass matting was universally popular for summer use. Carpeting was usually taken up for cleaning during the spring and rolled for storage during the summer. Matting took its place during the warm months. Sometimes matting was instead placed directly over hard-to-remove carpeting. Matting was frequently the year-round floor cover in bedrooms and was occasionally used as an under­layment beneath carpeting. Matting is still imported from the Far East, but the grade available today wears poorly.

Scrubbed Floors
Kitchen floors and boardwalks were commonly scrubbed frequently with a solution containing lye, which bleached the boards to a bone white color. This appearance is impossible to duplicate with today’s finishes, since sub­stitutes impart a yellow cast which is alien to the appear­ance of a lye-scrubbed floor.

This article was prepared by Samuel J. Dornsife, A.S.I.D., a specialist in the restoration and decoration of 19th century buildings and a partner in Henry A. Dornsife & Sons, 974 Hollywood Circle, Williamsport, Pa. 17101.

Suggestions for Further Reading

• American Rugs and Carpets: From the Seventeenth Century to Modern Times. Helene Von Rosenstiel. (192 pp., illus., 1978). $25.75, postpaid, hardcover. Available from William Morrow and Co., Sales Dept., 105 Madison Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016.
• America Underfoot: A History of Floor Coverings from Colonial Times to the Present. Anthony N. Landreau (76 pp., illus., 1976). $6.60, postpaid, soft cover. Avail­ able from Smithsonian Institute, Traveling Exhibition Services, Room 2170, Arts and Industries Building, Wash­ington, D.C. 20560.

Energy Efficiency

It is important to get maximum energy efficiency from an old building. But it is equally important not to do things to an old building in the name of energy efficiency that will destroy its architectural character — or worse -­ destroy the fabric of the house itself. An old building that has already endured for decades is not the place to experiment with the latest “miracle” solutions or mate­ rials. New, untried materials often cause serious damage to a structure.

Insulation
The most dramatic example of danger is the current rush to blow insulation into the side walls of old wood frame houses. Side-wall insulation can cause serious paint peeling problems. With blown insulation or foamed-in-place insulation there is not a vapor barrier as there is with insulation batts that are installed in new construction. Without this moisture barrier, water vapor from inside the house migrates into exterior wall spaces. On cold days, when the water vapor contacts the cold insulation, it will condense, making the insulation soggy and ineffi­cient. The presence of water inside the walls may cause paint to peel and may eventually rot out the sills. Side-wall insulation should be considered only after every other energy-saving step has been taken and installed only under careful supervision by an architect or other old-house expert.

Winter Heat Loss

Actually, much of energy saving is just common sense. For example, some traditional ways to conserve heat in winter are listed below:

• seal all cracks and crevices with a good quality long­ lasting caulk. Tightly weather-strip all windows and doors. Up to 20% of the heat loss from a house during winter comes from leakage of cold air.
• insulate attic space. About 25% of heat loss goes through the roof. It is best to put insulation in the attic floor, with the vapor barrier next to the ceiling of the room below. Do not place insulation directly under the floor boards. Air must circulate under the roof to prevent rot.
• use storm windows and storm doors. About 20% of heat loss occurs through windows with single-thickness thickness glass. Use either painted wood or aluminum with factory-applied paint. Unfinished aluminum is inappropriate on an old building.
• use shutters and heavy draperies to reduce radiation losses through windows on the shady side of the house. Use open shutters and draperies on the sunny side to benefit from the sun’s warming rays.
• be sure all radiators are clean. A small fan blowing air at a radiator will markedly increase heat transfer. For rooms with high ceilings, an old fashioned ceiling fan, run at low speed, acts as an air circulator, bringing hot air from the ceiling back to floor level.

Summer Cooling
Buildings constructed before 1940 were designed to be cooled by cross ventilation. By taking advantage of the cooling capacity built into the building, augmented by fans, you can either avoid the need for air conditioners entirely or reduce the number of hours that they must run. Other traditional cooling methods include the fol­lowing:

• use awnings to cut down on heat entering through win­dows. Awnings are not only attractive; they are also very practical.
• open the house during the night to admit the maximum amount of cool air. Then in morning, as outside air starts to heat up, close the house to keep cool air inside.
• close shutters and draperies on the sunny side of the house.
• plant deciduous trees on the west and south sides of the house to provide maximum shade on sunny days.

Other Common-Sense Steps

Dramatic energy savings can be realized in the way you operate the house. Energy saving is largely a matter of attitude and habit. Most old buildings were built with many internal partitions and doors. In winter, unused rooms were closed off so they would not have to be heated. In summer, all interior doors would be kept open to promote natural ventilation. It is usually a mis­take from an energy-efficiency standpoint to remove internal walls and doors from an old house. In addition,

• have furnace and air conditioners serviced regularly for maximum efficiency.
• set thermostats as low as possible in winter. It is much cheaper to insulate your body with wool sweaters than to try to heat the entire interior so you can walk around in a thin cotton shirt.
• keep lighting levels as low as possible, especially in summer, because heat from lights adds to the cooling load.
• keep settings on hot water heaters as low as possible.

It is quite possible to preserve the original architectural character of an old building and have energy efficiency, too. The biggest obstacle to energy-efficiency is over­ coming wasteful habits that have built up during 70 years of cheap energy.

This article was prepared by Clem Labine, editor and publisher of The Old-House Journal, a monthly maga­zine on restoration and maintenance for the antique house, 199 Berkeley Pl., Brooklyn, N. Y. 11217.

Suggestions for Further Reading

• Conserving Energy in Historic Buildings, Preservation Brief #3. Baird M. Smith (8 pp., illus., 1978). No charge, soft cover. Available from Technical Preserva­tion Services, Heritage Conservation and Recreation Ser­ vice, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. 20240.
• “The Energy-Efficient Old House.” Clem Labine (pp. 97, 105-107, illus.) in The Old-House Journal, September, 1977.
• In the Bank … Or Up the Chimney. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (73 pp., illus., 1975). $1.70, postpaid, soft cover. Available from U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Order by title and stock number 023-000-00297-3.
• Insulating the Old House. Sally E. Nielson, ed. (47 pp., illus., 1977). $1.90, postpaid, soft cover. Available from Greater Portland Landmarks, 165 State St., Port­ land, Me. 04101.

Mechanical Systems

The history of architectural style is paralleled by and dependent upon building technology, including mechani­cal systems. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, American architects were often innovators in sanitary, heating, and lighting systems. Most historic buildings provide evidence of changes and improvements in this technology and contain several layers of mechanical equipment dating from various eras.

Proper Planning
Perhaps the best guide in planning mechanical systems in historic buildings is to remember their relative obsoles­cence in comparison to the life expectancy of the build­ing as a whole. Because most mechanical systems must be replaced every 25 to 40 years, the impact of their in­stallation upon the historic fabric of the building should be considered carefully. Generally, the systems that in­ volve the least destruction of building fabric are the most desirable.

Owners should also be aware of dangers which may occur after new mechanical systems are installed. Modern cooling, heating, and humidifying devices have the capa­city to condition air beyond the ability of the building to handle these artificially created climates. For exam­ple, during winter months, if humidity is kept at a very high level to protect furniture or valuable artifacts or to create a comfortable human environment, serious con­densation can arise inside walls which do not have ade­quate moisture barriers; the result may be peeling paint and rotting wood. Condensation can also occur when a building is kept artificially very cool in the summer. Conversely, unusually low levels of humidity can cause shrinkage problems, especially in frame buildings and may cause plaster walls and ceiling to fail.

Aesthetic Considerations
Many aesthetic decisions must be made when new mechanical systems are installed. Sometimes, heating and electrical systems can be accommodated easily with little visual or physical impact upon the heating; hot air ducts may be laid in basements or crawl spaces and wires may be run within existing wall cavities. At other times, radiator or convector units must be exposed or wiring mounted on the surface of solid walls. It is better to choose well-designed modern units and place them carefully than to destroy historic building fabric in trying to hide or conceal them with inappropriate, anomalous period design.

Lighting
Evaluation of an electrical system usually requires the services of an expert. Old wiring and inadequate circuits are not only inconvenient but also hazardous. Historic lighting arrangements generally do not provide the level or flexibility of illumination required today. Modern lighting is required for many purposes, from spotlighting hazardous steps to floodlighting a whole wall, functions for which historic fixtures do not exist. Fixed or mov­ able modern fixtures may be a simpler solution than rewired antique lighting fixtures, and if attractive, may even improve the appearance of the room. “Period” fix­tures mounted in unhistoric locations or used in unhistoric ways may be more distracting than well-designed modern fixtures.

Heating
Most old buildings already have early 20th century heating and plumbing systems in place. Although they may be outmoded, most domestic hot water or steam heating systems and plumbing will continue to give good service with proper maintenance. However, if cracked pipes, broken seals, or boiler leaks go unnoticed or neglected, serious decay to both the building and the system can occur.
A quick inspection by the owner can detect aging in radiator systems: signs of rust around fittings, cracks or leaking caulking at joints in the boiler or boiler insula­tion, radiators which are cold on the upper floors but hot on the lower floors. Beyond this evidence, it is dif­ficult for the layman to detect problems, and an expert should be called in. Generally, a sound oil-fired steam or hot water system or a converted coal-to-oil boiler is ade­quately efficient to make replacement unnecessary until major repairs are needed.

Plumbing
Many old buildings were designed without or with only minimal bathroom facilities. Kitchens in old buildings may be inconveniently located according to the habits of modern households. Therefore, for reasons of conveni­ence alone, many old plumbing systems must be totally replaced or greatly modified. Often old pipes may be corroded or unsanitary and will not meet contemporary building codes.
Placement of new bathrooms and kitchens will be a major decision for the owner of an old building. In order to minimize intrusion on old building fabrics and the use of expensive new pipes, it may be useful to con­sult a sensitive architect or contractor experienced in working on older buildings.

When designing new bathrooms and kitchens it is best to select attractive modern fixtures rather than imita­tions of antique fixtures. However, if a property owner is lucky enough to have marble sinks, clawfoot tubs, and overhead water closets, he should consult a clever plumber on the rehabilitation of these valuable fixtures.

Efforts to conceal new pipes are one of the greatest causes of damage to historic building fabric. However, with careful investigation and craftsmanship, pipes may be installed in old chases, existing wall cavities, or closets. All new mechanical systems should be designed by pro­fessionals in the field to meet the requirements of the owner and all appropriate safety codes, such as the Na­tional Electric Code and the American Standard Na­tional Plumbing Code. These codes are not arbitrary standards but sound guidelines to ensure safe, efficient, and sanitary operation of modern mechanical equipment.

This article was prepared by Robert N. Pierpont, a build­ing conservation and materials consultant with the Pres­ervation/Design Group, 388 Broadway, Albany, N.Y., 12207.

This plan of the first floor of a row house demonstrates the sensitive placement of new fixtures and mechanical systems in existing spaces.

Grounds and Landscapes

Landscape and garden restoration will probably be one of the last tasks undertaken by the owner of an old property. Unless it has been very carefully maintained, it is unlikely that any landscape will immediately reveal its original design. Even if it has been maintained, a landscape will have changed with the natural maturation and death of plant materials, the evolution of mainten­ance standards and equipment, and the development of different use patterns by previous owners. However, except in the case of historic house museums or signifi­cant parks where an accurate restoration may be man­ dated, most owners will probably not be interested in replicating the original landscape design of their prop­erty.

History
Briefly, landscape and garden design in the Northeast proceeds from the tight, functional compartmentaliza­tion of the 18th century to the naturalistic, flowing style of the mid-19th century, through a series of some­ what fussy but botanically exciting styles, and then back to the rigid, formal developments which charac­terized the turn of the 19th century and the early 20th century.
Pre-industrial landscape design was based on the func­tional operation of a property. Its few decorative aspects were inherited from English Tudor precedents. Herb gardens provided medicine. Crops, orchards, and ani­mals were separated for management and protection. Only great wealth allowed the purely ornamental devel­opment of landscapes and gardens.

However, in the early 19th century industrialization freed many persons from a physical dependence on the land. With this freedom, middle classes could indulge in a romanticism which manifested itself in a gardening style which imitated nature. Andrew Jackson Downing codified this style for Americans in A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening. This book, first published in 1841, is recognized as the most important work on gardening ever printed in America.

Today it serves as a manuaI of practice for authentic 19th century garden and landscape restoration.
Downing’s theories were expanded and elaborated by many authors and by the numerous horticultural and rural arts journals available throughout the 19th century. These journals encouraged an encompassing interest in individual plants which had hitherto not been a primary focus of landscape design. This interest was evident in the Gardenesque style of landscape design which dis­ played plants in distinct beds and shrubs and trees as individual specimens isolated about a lawn. In reaction to this tradition, which produced the fussy beds sup­ posed to be characteristically Victorian, a simplified school of landscape design developed by the late 19th century. In keeping with the formal style of architec­ture it supported, this school was more rigid and archi­tectural. However, plants were used to soften architec­tural forms and herbaceous perennial borders eliminated the need for continual renewal of plant beds.

Site Survey
Before beginning landscape restoration, owners should complete as accurately as possible a site survey or plot plan, which will serve as the critical document for any site work, ranging from manipulation of major land forms to planting of annuals. The basic site survey should map the property to a recognized and usable scale. It can either be paced by the owner or accurately measured and surveyed by a professional. It should include all trees, buildings, ruins, walls and structural embellish­ments, paths and roads, and underground and overhead utility lines. An overlay sheet on the basic site survey should identify all existing plant materials, including shrubs, ground covers, and garden plants, as well as the compositions of hard areas such as gravel paths. This work should be accomplished before any major cleanup of the site is undertaken so that no valuable clues are inadvertently lost.

To further record existing conditions a property should be extensively photographed. Photographs should in­clude on-ground views and views from upper stories of buildings into the property. These will not only become planning tools and documentation for the property, but can be compared with historical view’s in efforts to recon­ struct the property’s previous appearance.

When recording a landscape, property owners should be on the lookout for obscured or vanished landscape fea­tures. A slight depression or mound in a lawn may indi­cate the site of a long-removed flower bed. If the de­ pression continues for some distance, it may be a buried brick path. Fence lines may be traced along the paths of hedges or seemingly unrelated rock piles in second growth wood lots. Ornamental shrubs, vegetables, or persistent perennials in an abandoned field may mark the site of a vanished garden.

Fences
Enclosure was very important in 19th century land­scapes and gardens. Areas were screened for privacy and protection. Fences, walls, and hedges were not only decorative but essential to the management of a city or suburban lot. Fences took many forms, ranging from simple wooden pickets to elaborate wrought or cast iron constructions with high style ornamental motifs. Hedges were often useful both as barriers and for food. Currant hedges were common. Masonry walls were the least com­mon sort of barriers and used only for very expensive buildings or for retaining walls. Ornamental iron fences may often be had today from scrap yards or antique dealers. Wooden fences can be replicated simply by fol­lowing instructions found in 19th century design manuals.

Furniture
Cast iron was also important in the landscape for settees, urns, ornamental watchdogs, and path and bed edging. Cast iron was used to construct these features in stand­ardized patterns, some of which remained popular throughout the 19th century. A common mistake today is to paint features such as iron lawn furniture and urns bright white. Until the advent of the Colonial Revival period at the turn of the 19th century, tastemakers recommended that iron lawn furniture and decorations be painted dark natural, or stone colors to harmonize rather than contrast with their setting. These colors had been recommended for wooden furniture and deco­ rations since the early 18th century.

Plant Material
Exotic plant material characterized 19th century land­ scape design. Plants were collected almost like objects of decorative art. Deformed or bizarre shapes were preferred. Outlandish color or bloom were also highly valued. Variegated, weeping, cut-leaf, and dwarf varie­ties of plants were popular. Shrubs common in 19th century gardens were cotoneaster, hibiscus, spiraea, viburnam, and weigelia. Dwarf fruit trees were con­sidered essential to a garden. Flowers were most often displayed in beds cut out in cookie cutter shapes from the lawn. Brightly colored carpet beds of annuals were accented with a central display of canna lilies, geraniums, or castor beans.

This article was prepared by Frederick D. Cawley, assist­ ant director of the Preservation League of New York State.

Suggestions for Further Reading

• The Art of Beautifying Suburban Home Grounds of Small Extent. Frank J. Scott. 1870, reprint (300 pp., illus., 1977). $7.50, postpaid, soft cover. Available from American Life Foundation, Box 349, Watkins Glen, N.Y. 14891.
• Early American Gardens for Meate and Medicine. Ann Leighton (441 pp., illus., 1970). $10.00, postpaid, hard cover. American Gardens in the Eighteenth Century for Use or For Delight. Ann Leighton (514 pp., illus., 1976). $17.50, postpaid, hard cover. Available from Houghton Mifflin, 2 Park St., Boston, Mass. 02107.
• Historic Landscape Preservation and Restoration: An Annotated Bibliography for New York State. Frederick D. Cawley, comp. (6 pp., illus., 1977). $1.00, postpaid, soft cover. Available from the Preservation League, 13 Northern Blvd., Albany, N.Y. 12210.
• Historic Landscapes and Gardens: Procedures for Resto­ ration, Technical Leaflet 80. John J. Stewart ( 12 pp., illus., 1974). $.50, postpaid, soft cover. Available from American Association for State and Local History, 1400 Eighth Ave., South, Nashville, Tenn. 37203.

Source Citation

Author unknown. “A Preservation Primer for the Property Owner.” Albany, New York: The Preservation League of New York State, Inc. 1978.